The Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER) working paper series seeks to promote the diffusion of research taking place within the Institute and by other scholars working on issues related to Social Policy and Labour. The series publishes manuscripts which reflect the Institute's ongoing activities but also privileges external research focussed on topics which are cross-cutting between social policy and labour and on the role of the state in addressing this interface. The working paper series aims to showcase high quality research which has not yet been published in conventional outlets (i.e. academic journals), but may nonetheless be of interest and value to the scholarly community. The objective of our series is therefore to offer researchers the chance to place useful, high quality work on social policy and labour in the public domain and to receive feedback that can help develop the work for future publication in a journal or edited collection. All papers are subject to review by an editorial committee which aims to facilitate publication of approved papers on the ISER website within two months from the date of initial submission.