A holistic approach in understanding the effects of dietary protein sources on the growth and reproductive development of farmed abalone, Haliotis midae
- Wu, Yu
- Authors: Wu, Yu
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Abalones -- Nutrition , Abalones -- Reproduction , Abalones -- Growth , Abalone culture , Haliotis midae -- Nutrition , Haliotis midae -- Reproduction , Haliotis midae -- Growth , Haliotis midae fisheries
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167719 , vital:41506
- Description: The combination of fishmeal and soya in the formulated feed of farmed South African abalone, Haliotis midae, not only improved abalone growth, but also the sustainability of the compound diets by reducing the reliance on fishmeal. However, the presence of soya produced larger gonads compared to those of abalone fed kelp or single-source protein diets. There is an increasing drive to control sexual maturation and reduce undesirable spawning events in farmed abalone. However, the reasons for the reported effects of soya inclusion on the reproductive development of farmed H. midae remain unresolved. The aim of this research was to use a combination of techniques to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between growth, reproductive and nutritional physiology of farmed H. midae fed diets of varying protein sources. These techniques included stable isotope analysis (SIA), fatty acid analysis, gonad histological assessments and haemolymph sexsteroid hormone analysis. The objectives were to examine the allocation of protein and nutritional components to somatic and reproductive tissues. This study also included the first attempt to investigate the role that sex steroid hormones play during gametogenesis. Abalone (40 – 50 g abalone-1) were fed one of four diets: either a single-source protein-based diet, i.e., (1) fishmeal-only (FM) or (2) soya-only (S), or a combination diet of (3) fishmeal-soya (FM S) or (4) fishmeal-sunflower meal (FM SM). Sampling occurred in 45-day intervals over one year. Dietary protein source had an effect on the growth of abalone, with enhancements in growth linked to the combination of fishmeal and a plant-protein source. The fishmeal ingredient was the most utilised protein source throughout the temporal changes in protein allocation into somatic and reproductive tissue, followed by soya and then sunflower meal. The mean whole- body mass of abalone was significantly influenced by an interaction between time and dietary treatment, with average whole-body mass changing differently over time between treatments (RM-ANOVA, F(24, 96) = 2.13, p = 0.005). Overall, abalone that were fed FM S had higher mean whole-body mass values than abalone that were fed the single-protein based diets, while abalone that were fed FM SM were similar to animals from all dietary treatments (RMANOVA, F(3, 12) = 5.75, p = 0.01). Male abalone had significantly higher gonad bulk index (GBI) values compared to females (RM-ANOVA, F(1, 24) = 49.03, p < 0.001) and this was independent of dietary treatment. Within each sex, female abalone fed the FM S diet (15.92 ± 1.88 mm3 g-1) had significantly higher GBI values than abalone fed S (9.76 ± 1.08 mm3 g-1), while abalone fed FM (11.96 ± 1.71 mm3 g-1) and FM SM (11.90 ± 0.80 mm3 g-1) were similar to abalone from all other dietary treatments (Tukey’s HSD, p < 0.05). Male abalone fed the FM S (21.59 ± 2.10 mm3 g-1) and FM SM diet (19.30 ± 2.63 mm3 g-1) had similar GBI values and they were significantly higher than in abalone fed the S diet (14.74 ± 1.27 mm3 g-1), while abalone fed FM S had significantly higher GBI values than abalone that consumed the FM diet (15.08 ±1.63mm3 g-1) ( Tukey’s HSD, p < 0.05). Although sunflower meal was poorly utilised, it produced similar overall growth to abalone that were fed the FM S diets. Yet, feed conversion ratio values were significantly lower for abalone fed FM S (1.30 ± 0.13) compared to those in the other three treatments, with ratios ranging from 1.65 – 1.72 over the one-year. The fatty acid compositions of the somatic and gonadal tissues were similar between treatments (PERMANOVA, p = 0.21), while fatty acid composition was influenced by sampling day, tissue type and abalone sex (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). The essential fatty acids (EFAs) eicosadienoic acid and a-linolenic acid were present in abalone tissue, but they were not detected in the diets, suggesting the important role that an alternate food source (e.g. farmed abalone also had access to diatoms) may have played and the ability that H. midae may have in converting long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from C18 precursors. A change in the abundance of EFAs in the gonad tissue during highest and lowest GBI values suggested that arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, g-linolenic and linoleic acid were important in females, while eicosapentaenoic, eicosadienoic and a-linolenic acid were important for male reproductive development. Dietary protein sources had an effect on the frequency distribution of maturity stages, where females that were fed FM S produced more ripe gonads and more males that were fed FM SM contained testes that showed signs of ripeness over the one-year study. Although dietary protein influenced the sex steroid concentrations in females and males, exhibiting fluctuations throughout the one-year period, no distinct pattern linked to gametogenesis were observed. The results from this study illustrate: (1) the importance of conducting laboratory studies when implementing SIA and mixing models in aquaculture nutrition; (2) conducting nutritional studies on mature, grow-out abalone; and (3) assessing the importance of naturally occurring diatoms in their diet and their contribution to growth and reproduction. The novel contribution of this research towards abalone nutritional physiology, the implications of these findings to industry as well as potential considerations for future studies were addressed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2020
- Authors: Wu, Yu
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Abalones -- Nutrition , Abalones -- Reproduction , Abalones -- Growth , Abalone culture , Haliotis midae -- Nutrition , Haliotis midae -- Reproduction , Haliotis midae -- Growth , Haliotis midae fisheries
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167719 , vital:41506
- Description: The combination of fishmeal and soya in the formulated feed of farmed South African abalone, Haliotis midae, not only improved abalone growth, but also the sustainability of the compound diets by reducing the reliance on fishmeal. However, the presence of soya produced larger gonads compared to those of abalone fed kelp or single-source protein diets. There is an increasing drive to control sexual maturation and reduce undesirable spawning events in farmed abalone. However, the reasons for the reported effects of soya inclusion on the reproductive development of farmed H. midae remain unresolved. The aim of this research was to use a combination of techniques to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between growth, reproductive and nutritional physiology of farmed H. midae fed diets of varying protein sources. These techniques included stable isotope analysis (SIA), fatty acid analysis, gonad histological assessments and haemolymph sexsteroid hormone analysis. The objectives were to examine the allocation of protein and nutritional components to somatic and reproductive tissues. This study also included the first attempt to investigate the role that sex steroid hormones play during gametogenesis. Abalone (40 – 50 g abalone-1) were fed one of four diets: either a single-source protein-based diet, i.e., (1) fishmeal-only (FM) or (2) soya-only (S), or a combination diet of (3) fishmeal-soya (FM S) or (4) fishmeal-sunflower meal (FM SM). Sampling occurred in 45-day intervals over one year. Dietary protein source had an effect on the growth of abalone, with enhancements in growth linked to the combination of fishmeal and a plant-protein source. The fishmeal ingredient was the most utilised protein source throughout the temporal changes in protein allocation into somatic and reproductive tissue, followed by soya and then sunflower meal. The mean whole- body mass of abalone was significantly influenced by an interaction between time and dietary treatment, with average whole-body mass changing differently over time between treatments (RM-ANOVA, F(24, 96) = 2.13, p = 0.005). Overall, abalone that were fed FM S had higher mean whole-body mass values than abalone that were fed the single-protein based diets, while abalone that were fed FM SM were similar to animals from all dietary treatments (RMANOVA, F(3, 12) = 5.75, p = 0.01). Male abalone had significantly higher gonad bulk index (GBI) values compared to females (RM-ANOVA, F(1, 24) = 49.03, p < 0.001) and this was independent of dietary treatment. Within each sex, female abalone fed the FM S diet (15.92 ± 1.88 mm3 g-1) had significantly higher GBI values than abalone fed S (9.76 ± 1.08 mm3 g-1), while abalone fed FM (11.96 ± 1.71 mm3 g-1) and FM SM (11.90 ± 0.80 mm3 g-1) were similar to abalone from all other dietary treatments (Tukey’s HSD, p < 0.05). Male abalone fed the FM S (21.59 ± 2.10 mm3 g-1) and FM SM diet (19.30 ± 2.63 mm3 g-1) had similar GBI values and they were significantly higher than in abalone fed the S diet (14.74 ± 1.27 mm3 g-1), while abalone fed FM S had significantly higher GBI values than abalone that consumed the FM diet (15.08 ±1.63mm3 g-1) ( Tukey’s HSD, p < 0.05). Although sunflower meal was poorly utilised, it produced similar overall growth to abalone that were fed the FM S diets. Yet, feed conversion ratio values were significantly lower for abalone fed FM S (1.30 ± 0.13) compared to those in the other three treatments, with ratios ranging from 1.65 – 1.72 over the one-year. The fatty acid compositions of the somatic and gonadal tissues were similar between treatments (PERMANOVA, p = 0.21), while fatty acid composition was influenced by sampling day, tissue type and abalone sex (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). The essential fatty acids (EFAs) eicosadienoic acid and a-linolenic acid were present in abalone tissue, but they were not detected in the diets, suggesting the important role that an alternate food source (e.g. farmed abalone also had access to diatoms) may have played and the ability that H. midae may have in converting long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from C18 precursors. A change in the abundance of EFAs in the gonad tissue during highest and lowest GBI values suggested that arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, g-linolenic and linoleic acid were important in females, while eicosapentaenoic, eicosadienoic and a-linolenic acid were important for male reproductive development. Dietary protein sources had an effect on the frequency distribution of maturity stages, where females that were fed FM S produced more ripe gonads and more males that were fed FM SM contained testes that showed signs of ripeness over the one-year study. Although dietary protein influenced the sex steroid concentrations in females and males, exhibiting fluctuations throughout the one-year period, no distinct pattern linked to gametogenesis were observed. The results from this study illustrate: (1) the importance of conducting laboratory studies when implementing SIA and mixing models in aquaculture nutrition; (2) conducting nutritional studies on mature, grow-out abalone; and (3) assessing the importance of naturally occurring diatoms in their diet and their contribution to growth and reproduction. The novel contribution of this research towards abalone nutritional physiology, the implications of these findings to industry as well as potential considerations for future studies were addressed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2020
The use of probiotics in the diet of farmed South African abalone Haliotis midae L
- Authors: Maliza, Siyabonga
- Date: 2015
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalones -- South Africa , Haliotis midae -- Feeding and feeds , Haliotis midae -- Effect of chemicals on , Haliotis midae -- Growth , Haliotis midae -- Immunology , Probiotics
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5382 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1018178
- Description: Physiological stress in farmed abalone can lead to immunosuppression and increase the susceptibility to bacterial, viral and parasitic disease, often followed by mortality. Thus, handling and poor water quality can reduce farm production efficiency. Probiotics in aquaculture have been effective in a wide range of species in enhancing immunity, survival, improving feed utilisation and growth. Three putative probionts identified as a result of in vitro screening had been beneficial to laboratory-reared abalone in a previous study. The aim of this study was to produce an abalone feed that contains a suite of probionts that may promote abalone growth and health under farming conditions. The objectives were to compare growth and physiological responses (i.e., haemocyte and phagocytosis counts) of abalone fed a commercial feed (Abfeed®S 34, Marifeed, Hermanus) supplemented with probiotics (i.e., the probiotic diet) to abalone fed the commercial feed without probiotic supplementation as a control treatment in a factorial design with handling method as an independent variable. This experiment was conducted at HIK Abalone Farm (Pty Ltd) for a period of eight months with initial weight and length 36.1 ± 0.05 g and 58.6 ± 0.06 mm abalone-1. Another experiment was carried out at Roman Bay Sea Farm (Pty) Ltd with initial weight and length 34.7 ± 0.17 g and 62.3 ± 0.18 mm abalone-1, but this experiment included one factor only, i.e. the presence and absence of the probionts in the feed. At HIK there was no significant interaction between diet and handling on average length and weight gain month-1 after four (p=0.81 and p=0.32) and eight (p=0.51 and p=0.53) months, respectively. Average length (additional handling = 73.9 ± 0.52 mm, normal farm handling = 75.8 ± 0.57 mm) and weight gain (mean: additional handling = 68.5 ± 1.20 g, normal farm handling = 74.3 ± 1.86 g) increased significantly in animals that were handled under normal farm procedure and were either fed probiotic or control diet after eight months (p=0.03 and p=0.02, respectively). There was no iii difference in length gain or weight gain of abalone fed the probiotic diet and those fed the control diet (ANOVA: F(1,16)=0.04, p=0.84; F(1,16)=0.14, p=0.71, respectively). After four months phagocytotic count was significantly different between dietary treatments with mean values of 74.50 ± 10.52 and 63.52 ± 14.52 % phagocytosis count per sample for the probionts and control treatment, respectively (p=0.04), there was no difference after eight months at HIK Abalone Farm. There was no effect of stressor application (p=0.14) and no interaction between dietary treatment and stressor application for this variable i.e., phagocytosis count (p=0.61). There was no difference in feed conversion ratio between treatments with values ranging from 2.9 to 3.8. At Roman Bay Sea farm, there was no significant difference in mean length gain between abalone fed the probiotic and control diet after eight months (repeated measures ANOVA: F(4,28)=16.54. Mean weight gain of abalone fed the probiotic diet was significantly greater than those fed the control diet after eight months (repeated measures ANOVA: F(4,28)=39.82, p(0.00001). There was no significant difference in haemocyte counts between animals fed either probiotic or control diet after four and eight months at Roman Bay Sea farm (p>0.05).
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2015
- Authors: Maliza, Siyabonga
- Date: 2015
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalones -- South Africa , Haliotis midae -- Feeding and feeds , Haliotis midae -- Effect of chemicals on , Haliotis midae -- Growth , Haliotis midae -- Immunology , Probiotics
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5382 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1018178
- Description: Physiological stress in farmed abalone can lead to immunosuppression and increase the susceptibility to bacterial, viral and parasitic disease, often followed by mortality. Thus, handling and poor water quality can reduce farm production efficiency. Probiotics in aquaculture have been effective in a wide range of species in enhancing immunity, survival, improving feed utilisation and growth. Three putative probionts identified as a result of in vitro screening had been beneficial to laboratory-reared abalone in a previous study. The aim of this study was to produce an abalone feed that contains a suite of probionts that may promote abalone growth and health under farming conditions. The objectives were to compare growth and physiological responses (i.e., haemocyte and phagocytosis counts) of abalone fed a commercial feed (Abfeed®S 34, Marifeed, Hermanus) supplemented with probiotics (i.e., the probiotic diet) to abalone fed the commercial feed without probiotic supplementation as a control treatment in a factorial design with handling method as an independent variable. This experiment was conducted at HIK Abalone Farm (Pty Ltd) for a period of eight months with initial weight and length 36.1 ± 0.05 g and 58.6 ± 0.06 mm abalone-1. Another experiment was carried out at Roman Bay Sea Farm (Pty) Ltd with initial weight and length 34.7 ± 0.17 g and 62.3 ± 0.18 mm abalone-1, but this experiment included one factor only, i.e. the presence and absence of the probionts in the feed. At HIK there was no significant interaction between diet and handling on average length and weight gain month-1 after four (p=0.81 and p=0.32) and eight (p=0.51 and p=0.53) months, respectively. Average length (additional handling = 73.9 ± 0.52 mm, normal farm handling = 75.8 ± 0.57 mm) and weight gain (mean: additional handling = 68.5 ± 1.20 g, normal farm handling = 74.3 ± 1.86 g) increased significantly in animals that were handled under normal farm procedure and were either fed probiotic or control diet after eight months (p=0.03 and p=0.02, respectively). There was no iii difference in length gain or weight gain of abalone fed the probiotic diet and those fed the control diet (ANOVA: F(1,16)=0.04, p=0.84; F(1,16)=0.14, p=0.71, respectively). After four months phagocytotic count was significantly different between dietary treatments with mean values of 74.50 ± 10.52 and 63.52 ± 14.52 % phagocytosis count per sample for the probionts and control treatment, respectively (p=0.04), there was no difference after eight months at HIK Abalone Farm. There was no effect of stressor application (p=0.14) and no interaction between dietary treatment and stressor application for this variable i.e., phagocytosis count (p=0.61). There was no difference in feed conversion ratio between treatments with values ranging from 2.9 to 3.8. At Roman Bay Sea farm, there was no significant difference in mean length gain between abalone fed the probiotic and control diet after eight months (repeated measures ANOVA: F(4,28)=16.54. Mean weight gain of abalone fed the probiotic diet was significantly greater than those fed the control diet after eight months (repeated measures ANOVA: F(4,28)=39.82, p(0.00001). There was no significant difference in haemocyte counts between animals fed either probiotic or control diet after four and eight months at Roman Bay Sea farm (p>0.05).
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2015
The water and nutrient potential of brewery effluent for hydroponic tomato production
- Authors: Power, Sean Duncan
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Hydroponics , Tomatoes -- Breeding , Brewery waste , Water -- Purification , Algae culture , Algae -- Biotechnology , Nitric acid , Phosphoric acid
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5358 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1011604 , Hydroponics , Tomatoes -- Breeding , Brewery waste , Water -- Purification , Algae culture , Algae -- Biotechnology , Nitric acid , Phosphoric acid
- Description: Brewery effluent that had undergone treatment in an anaerobic digester (AD) was used as an alternative water and nutrient source for hydroponic crop production. Brewery effluent was demonstrated to contain sufficient nutrients to support the growth, flowering and fruiting of Lycopersicum escolentum "Moneymaker" tomato crops. The adjustment of the effluent pH with phosphoric acid to between pH 6.0 and 6.5 increased the development of the crops by around 100% compared to crops grown in unaltered effluent. The pH adjusted effluent-grown plants grew to a mean height of 831.4 ± 21.1 mm and a dry biomass weight of 42.34 ± 2.76 g compared to the unaltered pH effluent plants which grew to a height of 410.6 ± 20.5 mm and a weight of 7.65 ± 0.68 g after 49 days. Effluent treatment in high-rate algal ponds (HRAP) was determined to have no positive effect on the nutritional potential of the effluent for Moneymaker production. The effluent-grown plants did not perform as well as plants grown in inorganic-fertilizer and municipal water. Plants grown in effluent grew taller but did not produce significantly more fruit when phosphoric acid (height: 1573.3 ± 50.4 mm, 19.4 ± 1.4 fruit per plant) was compared to nitric acid (height: 1254.1 ± 25.4 mm, 15.6 ± 1.5 fruit per plant) as the pH adjustment over 72 days. Direct and secondary plant stresses from effluent alkalinity, ammonium nutrition, nitrogen limitation, sodium concentrations and heat stress among other factors were probably confounding variables in these trials and require further investigation. Considering the raw effluent composition and manipulating the AD operation is a potential opportunity to improve overall AD performance, reduce chemical inputs in the effluent treatment process, reduce the final effluent alkalinity, and increase available nitrogen content in the final effluent. The anaerobic digester discharging >1000 m³ of nutrient enriched effluent every day is a resource with considerable potential. The benefits of developing this resource can contribute to cost-reduction at the brewery, more efficient water, nutrient and energy management at the brewery, and offer opportunities for job creation and potentially benefit local food security.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- Authors: Power, Sean Duncan
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Hydroponics , Tomatoes -- Breeding , Brewery waste , Water -- Purification , Algae culture , Algae -- Biotechnology , Nitric acid , Phosphoric acid
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5358 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1011604 , Hydroponics , Tomatoes -- Breeding , Brewery waste , Water -- Purification , Algae culture , Algae -- Biotechnology , Nitric acid , Phosphoric acid
- Description: Brewery effluent that had undergone treatment in an anaerobic digester (AD) was used as an alternative water and nutrient source for hydroponic crop production. Brewery effluent was demonstrated to contain sufficient nutrients to support the growth, flowering and fruiting of Lycopersicum escolentum "Moneymaker" tomato crops. The adjustment of the effluent pH with phosphoric acid to between pH 6.0 and 6.5 increased the development of the crops by around 100% compared to crops grown in unaltered effluent. The pH adjusted effluent-grown plants grew to a mean height of 831.4 ± 21.1 mm and a dry biomass weight of 42.34 ± 2.76 g compared to the unaltered pH effluent plants which grew to a height of 410.6 ± 20.5 mm and a weight of 7.65 ± 0.68 g after 49 days. Effluent treatment in high-rate algal ponds (HRAP) was determined to have no positive effect on the nutritional potential of the effluent for Moneymaker production. The effluent-grown plants did not perform as well as plants grown in inorganic-fertilizer and municipal water. Plants grown in effluent grew taller but did not produce significantly more fruit when phosphoric acid (height: 1573.3 ± 50.4 mm, 19.4 ± 1.4 fruit per plant) was compared to nitric acid (height: 1254.1 ± 25.4 mm, 15.6 ± 1.5 fruit per plant) as the pH adjustment over 72 days. Direct and secondary plant stresses from effluent alkalinity, ammonium nutrition, nitrogen limitation, sodium concentrations and heat stress among other factors were probably confounding variables in these trials and require further investigation. Considering the raw effluent composition and manipulating the AD operation is a potential opportunity to improve overall AD performance, reduce chemical inputs in the effluent treatment process, reduce the final effluent alkalinity, and increase available nitrogen content in the final effluent. The anaerobic digester discharging >1000 m³ of nutrient enriched effluent every day is a resource with considerable potential. The benefits of developing this resource can contribute to cost-reduction at the brewery, more efficient water, nutrient and energy management at the brewery, and offer opportunities for job creation and potentially benefit local food security.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
Towards understanding the effects of stocking density on farmed South African abalone, Haliotis Midae
- Authors: Nicholson, Gareth Hurst
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalones -- South Africa , Fish stocking -- South Africa , Abalone populations -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5371 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1015646
- Description: The profitability of abalone farms is heavily influenced by their production per unit of grow-out space. With farms having physically expanded to the maximum, and with increasing production costs, one of the most realistic ways for farms to increase their production is through optimizing stocking densities. The effect of stocking density on Haliotis midae performance is undocumented and optimal stocking densities for this species have not been determined. Experiments were conducted under farm conditions to investigate the effects of four different stocking densities (16 %, 20 %, 22 % and 24 % of available surface area) on growth, production and health of three different size classes of abalone (15-35 g, 45-65 g, and 70-90 g start weight). Each treatment was replicated four times and trials ran over a period of eight months with measurements being made at four month intervals. Abalone behaviour was observed during the trials in the experimental tanks. Weight gain per abalone decreased with an increase in density for all tested size classes (5.04 ± 0.18 to 2.38 ± 0.17; 5.35 ± 0.21 to 4.62 ± 0.29; 7.97 ± 0.37 to 6.53 ± 0.28 g.abalone-1.month-1 for the 15-35, 45-65 and 70-90 g classes respectively, with an increased density of 16 to 24 %). Individual weight gain of 15-35 g abalone was similar at stocking densities of 16 % and 20 % while weight gain of 45-65 g and 70-90 g abalone decreased when density was increased above 16 %. Biomass gain (kg.basket-1.month-1) was not affected by stocking density in the 15-35 g and 45-65 g size classes (1.29 ± 0.02 and 0.97 ± 0.02 kg.basket-1.month-1 respectively). However, the biomass gained by baskets stocked with 70-90 g abalone increased with stocking density (1.08 ± 0.02 to 1.33 ± 0.02 kg.basket-1.month-1) with an increased density of 16 to 24 %) and did not appear to plateau within the tested density range (16 to 24 %). Food conversion ratio did not differ significantly between densities across all size classes. Stocking density did not have a significant effect on abalone condition factor or health indices. The proportion of abalone above the level of the feeder plate increased with density (7.26 ± 1.33 to 16.44 ± 1.33 with an increased density of 16 to 24 %). As a proportion of abalone situated in the area of the basket, the same proportions were situated on the walls above the feeder plate and on the feeder plate itself irrespective of stocking density (p > 0.05). Higher proportions of animals had restricted access to feed at higher stocking densities (p = 0.03). The amount of formulated feed available on the feeder plate did not differ between stocking densities throughout the night (p = 0.19). Individual abalone spent more time above the feeder plate at higher stocking densities (p < 0.05). The percentage of time above the feeder plate, spent on the walls of the basket and on the feeding surface was not significantly different at densities of 20 %, 22 % and 24 % (p > 0.05) but abalone stocked at 16 % spent a greater percentage of time above the feeder plate on the feeding surface (83.99 ± 6.26 %) than on the basket walls (16.01 ± 6.26 %). Stocking density did not affect the positioning of abalone within a basket during the day or at night. Different size H. midae are affected differently by increases in stocking density in terms of growth performance. Findings from this research may be implemented into farm management strategies to best suit production goals, whether in terms of biomass production or individual weight gain. The fundamental mechanisms resulting in reduced growth at higher densities are not well understood, however results from behaviour observations suggest that competition for preferred attachment space and feed availability are contributing to decreased growth rates. With knowledge of abalone behaviour at different densities, innovative tank designs may be established in order to counter the reduction in growth at higher densities.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- Authors: Nicholson, Gareth Hurst
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalones -- South Africa , Fish stocking -- South Africa , Abalone populations -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5371 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1015646
- Description: The profitability of abalone farms is heavily influenced by their production per unit of grow-out space. With farms having physically expanded to the maximum, and with increasing production costs, one of the most realistic ways for farms to increase their production is through optimizing stocking densities. The effect of stocking density on Haliotis midae performance is undocumented and optimal stocking densities for this species have not been determined. Experiments were conducted under farm conditions to investigate the effects of four different stocking densities (16 %, 20 %, 22 % and 24 % of available surface area) on growth, production and health of three different size classes of abalone (15-35 g, 45-65 g, and 70-90 g start weight). Each treatment was replicated four times and trials ran over a period of eight months with measurements being made at four month intervals. Abalone behaviour was observed during the trials in the experimental tanks. Weight gain per abalone decreased with an increase in density for all tested size classes (5.04 ± 0.18 to 2.38 ± 0.17; 5.35 ± 0.21 to 4.62 ± 0.29; 7.97 ± 0.37 to 6.53 ± 0.28 g.abalone-1.month-1 for the 15-35, 45-65 and 70-90 g classes respectively, with an increased density of 16 to 24 %). Individual weight gain of 15-35 g abalone was similar at stocking densities of 16 % and 20 % while weight gain of 45-65 g and 70-90 g abalone decreased when density was increased above 16 %. Biomass gain (kg.basket-1.month-1) was not affected by stocking density in the 15-35 g and 45-65 g size classes (1.29 ± 0.02 and 0.97 ± 0.02 kg.basket-1.month-1 respectively). However, the biomass gained by baskets stocked with 70-90 g abalone increased with stocking density (1.08 ± 0.02 to 1.33 ± 0.02 kg.basket-1.month-1) with an increased density of 16 to 24 %) and did not appear to plateau within the tested density range (16 to 24 %). Food conversion ratio did not differ significantly between densities across all size classes. Stocking density did not have a significant effect on abalone condition factor or health indices. The proportion of abalone above the level of the feeder plate increased with density (7.26 ± 1.33 to 16.44 ± 1.33 with an increased density of 16 to 24 %). As a proportion of abalone situated in the area of the basket, the same proportions were situated on the walls above the feeder plate and on the feeder plate itself irrespective of stocking density (p > 0.05). Higher proportions of animals had restricted access to feed at higher stocking densities (p = 0.03). The amount of formulated feed available on the feeder plate did not differ between stocking densities throughout the night (p = 0.19). Individual abalone spent more time above the feeder plate at higher stocking densities (p < 0.05). The percentage of time above the feeder plate, spent on the walls of the basket and on the feeding surface was not significantly different at densities of 20 %, 22 % and 24 % (p > 0.05) but abalone stocked at 16 % spent a greater percentage of time above the feeder plate on the feeding surface (83.99 ± 6.26 %) than on the basket walls (16.01 ± 6.26 %). Stocking density did not affect the positioning of abalone within a basket during the day or at night. Different size H. midae are affected differently by increases in stocking density in terms of growth performance. Findings from this research may be implemented into farm management strategies to best suit production goals, whether in terms of biomass production or individual weight gain. The fundamental mechanisms resulting in reduced growth at higher densities are not well understood, however results from behaviour observations suggest that competition for preferred attachment space and feed availability are contributing to decreased growth rates. With knowledge of abalone behaviour at different densities, innovative tank designs may be established in order to counter the reduction in growth at higher densities.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
Growth and gonad size in cultured South African abalone, Haliotis midae
- Authors: Riddin, Nicholas Alwyn
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Physiology -- South Africa , Abalones -- Growth -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5180 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001651 , Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Physiology -- South Africa , Abalones -- Growth -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds -- South Africa
- Description: According to farm records, cultured Haliotis midae (50-70 g.abalone⁻¹) were growing 10% slower in winter when compared to summer. This reduction in growth rate also coincided with enlarged gonads. Initial trials showed that there were differences in mean monthly growth rates ranging from 1.97 – 5.14 g abalone⁻¹ month⁻¹, and gonad bulk index (GBI) also varied between months (GBI range: 26.88 ± 12.87 to 51.03 ± 34.47). The investment of energy into gonad tissue growth did not compromise whole body growth as the abalone continued to gain weight throughout the reproductive periods, probably due to gonadal growth. Growth of this size class of abalone was not influenced by water temperature or day length, suggesting favourable on-farm culture conditions (regression analyses, p > 0.05). There is no need to implement a seasonal dietary regime. Cultured H. midae were fed artificial diets with different protein sources, including only soya, only fishmeal, a combination of soya and fishmeal, and these were compared to kelp-fed abalone. Kelp-fed abalone grew slower than those fed artificial feeds (p>0.05). Gonad growth was the greatest when soya meal was included in the diet (average GBI: 74.91 ± 23.31), while the average gonad size of abalone fed the fishmealbased diet had gonads which were 38% smaller, and kelp-fed abalone had gonads which were 75% smaller than those of the abalone fed on diets containing soya meal. The increased gonad mass in abalone fed on diets including soya meal could be attributed to phytoestrogenic activity, as a result of the presence of isoflavones found in the soya plant; this remains to be tested. The use of soya in brood stock diet development is advised. The influence of dietary protein to energy ratio (1.41 – 2.46 g MJ⁻¹) on growth and gonad size was tested. Protein and energy levels within the ranges tested (22 and 33% protein; 13.5 and 15.6 MJ kg⁻¹) did not interact to influence growth rates of cultured H. midae. GBI increased from 50.67 ± 4.16 to 83.93 ± 9.35 units as a function of dietary protein to energy ratio (y = 42.02 x⁰·⁸¹; r² = 0.19; regression analysis: F₁¸₃₈ = 8.9; p = 0.005). In addition, protein level influenced gonad size, with gonad growth being greater in abalone fed the high protein diet (factorial ANOVA: F₁¸₃₂ = 7.1, p = 0.012). Canning yields were reduced by 7% when the protein content was increased, while increasing the quantity of dietary energy improved canning yields by ~ 6% (one-way ANOVA: F₁¸₂₈ = 14.4, p= 0.001). The present study provided evidence that although growth rates are varying seasonally, reproductive investment is not hindering weight gain. Gonad growth can be influenced if desired by farms, depending on the level of soya inclusion, as well as the protein to energy ratio in the diet. Monthly variation in growth and gonad size, as well as the influence of diet on gonad growth were highlighted, and the implications for farm application and further research were discussed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2013
- Authors: Riddin, Nicholas Alwyn
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Physiology -- South Africa , Abalones -- Growth -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5180 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001651 , Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Haliotis midae fisheries -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Physiology -- South Africa , Abalones -- Growth -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds -- South Africa
- Description: According to farm records, cultured Haliotis midae (50-70 g.abalone⁻¹) were growing 10% slower in winter when compared to summer. This reduction in growth rate also coincided with enlarged gonads. Initial trials showed that there were differences in mean monthly growth rates ranging from 1.97 – 5.14 g abalone⁻¹ month⁻¹, and gonad bulk index (GBI) also varied between months (GBI range: 26.88 ± 12.87 to 51.03 ± 34.47). The investment of energy into gonad tissue growth did not compromise whole body growth as the abalone continued to gain weight throughout the reproductive periods, probably due to gonadal growth. Growth of this size class of abalone was not influenced by water temperature or day length, suggesting favourable on-farm culture conditions (regression analyses, p > 0.05). There is no need to implement a seasonal dietary regime. Cultured H. midae were fed artificial diets with different protein sources, including only soya, only fishmeal, a combination of soya and fishmeal, and these were compared to kelp-fed abalone. Kelp-fed abalone grew slower than those fed artificial feeds (p>0.05). Gonad growth was the greatest when soya meal was included in the diet (average GBI: 74.91 ± 23.31), while the average gonad size of abalone fed the fishmealbased diet had gonads which were 38% smaller, and kelp-fed abalone had gonads which were 75% smaller than those of the abalone fed on diets containing soya meal. The increased gonad mass in abalone fed on diets including soya meal could be attributed to phytoestrogenic activity, as a result of the presence of isoflavones found in the soya plant; this remains to be tested. The use of soya in brood stock diet development is advised. The influence of dietary protein to energy ratio (1.41 – 2.46 g MJ⁻¹) on growth and gonad size was tested. Protein and energy levels within the ranges tested (22 and 33% protein; 13.5 and 15.6 MJ kg⁻¹) did not interact to influence growth rates of cultured H. midae. GBI increased from 50.67 ± 4.16 to 83.93 ± 9.35 units as a function of dietary protein to energy ratio (y = 42.02 x⁰·⁸¹; r² = 0.19; regression analysis: F₁¸₃₈ = 8.9; p = 0.005). In addition, protein level influenced gonad size, with gonad growth being greater in abalone fed the high protein diet (factorial ANOVA: F₁¸₃₂ = 7.1, p = 0.012). Canning yields were reduced by 7% when the protein content was increased, while increasing the quantity of dietary energy improved canning yields by ~ 6% (one-way ANOVA: F₁¸₂₈ = 14.4, p= 0.001). The present study provided evidence that although growth rates are varying seasonally, reproductive investment is not hindering weight gain. Gonad growth can be influenced if desired by farms, depending on the level of soya inclusion, as well as the protein to energy ratio in the diet. Monthly variation in growth and gonad size, as well as the influence of diet on gonad growth were highlighted, and the implications for farm application and further research were discussed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2013
The effect of dietary fish oil replacement with soybean oil on growth and health of dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus (Pisces: Sciaenidae)
- Authors: Rossetti, Nani Adami
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Sciaenidae , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Growth , Argyrosomus -- Feeding and feeds , Argyrosomus -- Health , Fish oils as feed , Soy oil , Lipids , Eicosapentaenoic acid , Docosahexaenoic acid
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5272 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005116 , Sciaenidae , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Growth , Argyrosomus -- Feeding and feeds , Argyrosomus -- Health , Fish oils as feed , Soy oil , Lipids , Eicosapentaenoic acid , Docosahexaenoic acid
- Description: Lipids are essential components for fish because they contain fatty acids that are vital for regular growth and health. Fish oil is rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are essential fatty acids for carnivorous fish, and therefore this product has traditionally been used as the main source of lipids in fish feeds. However, with declining fisheries resources worldwide and the rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry pressuring this finite resource, such ingredients are becoming less available and more expensive. It is therefore necessary to explore the utilization of ingredients that are sustainable and competitive alternatives to fish oil in marine finfish feeds. This work investigated the effects of the substitution of fish oil with soybean oil on the growth performance, feed efficiency, fatty acid composition of the liver tissue and some health parameters in juvenile dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus; an increasingly popular sciaenid marine aquaculture species in South Africa. Six diets (18 % total lipid and 46 % protein) with increasing percentage substitution of fish oil with soybean oil (1, 14, 28, 42, 56 and 70 %) were fed to juvenile kob. After 84 days of feeding these diets to the fish, no significant differences in fish length and weight between treatments were observed. However, there was a significant trend of a decrease in specific growth rate, ranging from (± standard error) 0.87 ± 0.06 to 0.72 ± 0.04 % body weight day⁻¹, and condition factor, ranging from 1.59 ± 0.03 to 1.54 ± 0.02, with increasing vegetable oil replacement in the diets between days 56 and 84. There were no differences in red blood cell count, haematocrit and haemoglobin concentration after 206 days of feeding. However, visceral fat index (VFI) increased significantly from 1.08 ± 0.17 % for fish fed diets with 28 % soybean oil, to 2.24 ± 0.15 % for fish fed diets with 70 % soybean oil. Similarly, hepatosomatic index (HSI) increased significantly from 0.84 ± 0.08 % to 1.80 ± 0.12 % in the control diet and the 56 % soybean oil diet, respectively. After 206 days of feeding, fish fed diets with 42 to 70 % soybean oil showed greater number of lipid vacuoles in the liver, which were also larger in size, and hepatocytes nuclei were displaced to the cell periphery. The fatty acid composition of the liver tissue strongly corresponded to the fatty acid composition of the diets. Linoleic acid accumulated in the liver of the fish fed increasing soybean oil in the diets. In contrast, EPA and DHA decreased from 13.63 to 1.97 %, and 14.34 to 3.28 %, respectively, in the liver tissue of fish fed diets with increasing soybean oil content; consequently the n-3/n-6 ratio was also significantly reduced with inclusion of vegetable oil in the diets. The trend of decreasing growth rate with increasing oil replacement towards the end of the trial corresponds with increases in VFI, HSI, as well as the fatty acid accumulation and lipid vacuoles in the liver. This suggests that dusky kob is less able to metabolise soybean oil at increased substitution levels which would account for the poorer growth at higher levels. The dependence of fish on dietary marine oil decreased significantly with each inclusion of soybean oil in the diets. Nonetheless, the calculations based on the nutrient ratio presented positive outcomes for all treatments, that is, values of marine oil dependency ratio were below one for all treatments. It is concluded that soybean oil can replace fish oil in formulated diets for dusky kob up to a level of 28 % of total dietary lipids, as evidenced by the good growth and feed efficiency, and no apparent negative health effects observed up to this level.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
- Authors: Rossetti, Nani Adami
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Sciaenidae , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Growth , Argyrosomus -- Feeding and feeds , Argyrosomus -- Health , Fish oils as feed , Soy oil , Lipids , Eicosapentaenoic acid , Docosahexaenoic acid
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5272 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005116 , Sciaenidae , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Growth , Argyrosomus -- Feeding and feeds , Argyrosomus -- Health , Fish oils as feed , Soy oil , Lipids , Eicosapentaenoic acid , Docosahexaenoic acid
- Description: Lipids are essential components for fish because they contain fatty acids that are vital for regular growth and health. Fish oil is rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are essential fatty acids for carnivorous fish, and therefore this product has traditionally been used as the main source of lipids in fish feeds. However, with declining fisheries resources worldwide and the rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry pressuring this finite resource, such ingredients are becoming less available and more expensive. It is therefore necessary to explore the utilization of ingredients that are sustainable and competitive alternatives to fish oil in marine finfish feeds. This work investigated the effects of the substitution of fish oil with soybean oil on the growth performance, feed efficiency, fatty acid composition of the liver tissue and some health parameters in juvenile dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus; an increasingly popular sciaenid marine aquaculture species in South Africa. Six diets (18 % total lipid and 46 % protein) with increasing percentage substitution of fish oil with soybean oil (1, 14, 28, 42, 56 and 70 %) were fed to juvenile kob. After 84 days of feeding these diets to the fish, no significant differences in fish length and weight between treatments were observed. However, there was a significant trend of a decrease in specific growth rate, ranging from (± standard error) 0.87 ± 0.06 to 0.72 ± 0.04 % body weight day⁻¹, and condition factor, ranging from 1.59 ± 0.03 to 1.54 ± 0.02, with increasing vegetable oil replacement in the diets between days 56 and 84. There were no differences in red blood cell count, haematocrit and haemoglobin concentration after 206 days of feeding. However, visceral fat index (VFI) increased significantly from 1.08 ± 0.17 % for fish fed diets with 28 % soybean oil, to 2.24 ± 0.15 % for fish fed diets with 70 % soybean oil. Similarly, hepatosomatic index (HSI) increased significantly from 0.84 ± 0.08 % to 1.80 ± 0.12 % in the control diet and the 56 % soybean oil diet, respectively. After 206 days of feeding, fish fed diets with 42 to 70 % soybean oil showed greater number of lipid vacuoles in the liver, which were also larger in size, and hepatocytes nuclei were displaced to the cell periphery. The fatty acid composition of the liver tissue strongly corresponded to the fatty acid composition of the diets. Linoleic acid accumulated in the liver of the fish fed increasing soybean oil in the diets. In contrast, EPA and DHA decreased from 13.63 to 1.97 %, and 14.34 to 3.28 %, respectively, in the liver tissue of fish fed diets with increasing soybean oil content; consequently the n-3/n-6 ratio was also significantly reduced with inclusion of vegetable oil in the diets. The trend of decreasing growth rate with increasing oil replacement towards the end of the trial corresponds with increases in VFI, HSI, as well as the fatty acid accumulation and lipid vacuoles in the liver. This suggests that dusky kob is less able to metabolise soybean oil at increased substitution levels which would account for the poorer growth at higher levels. The dependence of fish on dietary marine oil decreased significantly with each inclusion of soybean oil in the diets. Nonetheless, the calculations based on the nutrient ratio presented positive outcomes for all treatments, that is, values of marine oil dependency ratio were below one for all treatments. It is concluded that soybean oil can replace fish oil in formulated diets for dusky kob up to a level of 28 % of total dietary lipids, as evidenced by the good growth and feed efficiency, and no apparent negative health effects observed up to this level.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
The treatment of brewery effluent using an integrated high rate algal ponding system
- Authors: Cilliers, Anneke
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Water -- Purification -- South Africa , Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Algae -- Economic aspects
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5331 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005177 , Water -- Purification -- South Africa , Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Algae -- Economic aspects
- Description: The application of high rate algal ponds (HRAP) in the treatment of brewery effluent that met the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's (DWAF) general limits for discharge into a natural water resource of 1998 were tested during a lO-month baseline phase, followed by an 11-month optimization phase. The objective of the baseline phase was to monitor the seasonal performance of HRAPs. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) fluctuated between 11.16 d and 12.00 d in HRAPs. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) increased from 130.12 ± 6.94 mg/L (post-AD), to 171.21 ± 7.99 mg/L (post-HRAP) . The presence of algal cells and evaporation contributed towards an increase in post-HRAP COD. The ammonia (NH₄-N) concentration decreased from 46.59 ± 2.47 mg/L (post-AD), to 1.08 ± 0.12 mg/L (post-HRAP). The nitrite (NO₂- N) concentration remained below 1.00 mg/L in post-pilot plant AD, post-PFP and post-HRAP effluent. The phosphate (PO₄-P) concentration decreased from 29.81 ± 1.39 mg/L (post-AD) to 17.30 ± 1.16 mg/L PO₄-P. The objective of the optimization phase was to manipulate the HRT to achieve the maximum treatment rate that met the DWAF general limits for discharge into a natural water resource of 1998. Nitrogen (as NH₄-N, NO₃-N, NO₂-N) removal efficiency was used as an indicator of nutrient removal success. HRT was influenced by season. The optimal HRT for autumn was 4.30 d at a temperature of 20.53ºC in HRAP A2 (heated) and 18.96ºC in HRAP B2 (ambient). The optimal HRT for summer was 2.74 d at 29.90ºC in HRAP A2 (heated) and 26.36ºC in HRAP B2 (ambient). The COD decreased from 152.33 ± 4.85 mg/L (post-AD) to 95 .00 ± 3.75 mg/L (post-HRAP A2), and to 100.82 ± 5.93 mg/L (post-HRAP B2). The incoming NH₄-N concentration decreased from 42.53 ± 1.38 mg/ L (post-AD), to 1.70 ± 0.81 mg/ L (post-HRAP) . The nitrate (NO₃-N) concentration post-HRAP was 12 - 14 mg/L. The main methods for NH₄-N removal were probably NH₄-N volatilization through algal uptake. HRAPs were able to lower nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations to within the DWAF limits under normal operating conditions. It is recommended that HRAP treated brewery wastewater be used for irrigation after salt removal, or alternatively, for groundwater recharge . Regulatory exemptions would be required for higher than permitted COD and EC concentrations to enable these actions.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
- Authors: Cilliers, Anneke
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Water -- Purification -- South Africa , Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Algae -- Economic aspects
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5331 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005177 , Water -- Purification -- South Africa , Algae -- Biotechnology , Algae culture , Algae -- Economic aspects
- Description: The application of high rate algal ponds (HRAP) in the treatment of brewery effluent that met the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's (DWAF) general limits for discharge into a natural water resource of 1998 were tested during a lO-month baseline phase, followed by an 11-month optimization phase. The objective of the baseline phase was to monitor the seasonal performance of HRAPs. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) fluctuated between 11.16 d and 12.00 d in HRAPs. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) increased from 130.12 ± 6.94 mg/L (post-AD), to 171.21 ± 7.99 mg/L (post-HRAP) . The presence of algal cells and evaporation contributed towards an increase in post-HRAP COD. The ammonia (NH₄-N) concentration decreased from 46.59 ± 2.47 mg/L (post-AD), to 1.08 ± 0.12 mg/L (post-HRAP). The nitrite (NO₂- N) concentration remained below 1.00 mg/L in post-pilot plant AD, post-PFP and post-HRAP effluent. The phosphate (PO₄-P) concentration decreased from 29.81 ± 1.39 mg/L (post-AD) to 17.30 ± 1.16 mg/L PO₄-P. The objective of the optimization phase was to manipulate the HRT to achieve the maximum treatment rate that met the DWAF general limits for discharge into a natural water resource of 1998. Nitrogen (as NH₄-N, NO₃-N, NO₂-N) removal efficiency was used as an indicator of nutrient removal success. HRT was influenced by season. The optimal HRT for autumn was 4.30 d at a temperature of 20.53ºC in HRAP A2 (heated) and 18.96ºC in HRAP B2 (ambient). The optimal HRT for summer was 2.74 d at 29.90ºC in HRAP A2 (heated) and 26.36ºC in HRAP B2 (ambient). The COD decreased from 152.33 ± 4.85 mg/L (post-AD) to 95 .00 ± 3.75 mg/L (post-HRAP A2), and to 100.82 ± 5.93 mg/L (post-HRAP B2). The incoming NH₄-N concentration decreased from 42.53 ± 1.38 mg/ L (post-AD), to 1.70 ± 0.81 mg/ L (post-HRAP) . The nitrate (NO₃-N) concentration post-HRAP was 12 - 14 mg/L. The main methods for NH₄-N removal were probably NH₄-N volatilization through algal uptake. HRAPs were able to lower nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations to within the DWAF limits under normal operating conditions. It is recommended that HRAP treated brewery wastewater be used for irrigation after salt removal, or alternatively, for groundwater recharge . Regulatory exemptions would be required for higher than permitted COD and EC concentrations to enable these actions.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
Water quality dynamics in an experimental serial-use raceway and its effects on growth of South African abalone, Haliotis midae
- Authors: Naylor, Matthew Aubrey
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Effect of water quality on , Abalones -- Nutrition -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds , Abalones -- Growth , Fish culture -- Water reuse
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5335 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005181 , Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Effect of water quality on , Abalones -- Nutrition -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds , Abalones -- Growth , Fish culture -- Water reuse
- Description: An understanding of species specific water quality requirements is essential for efficient production of aquaculture products, an aspect not well documented for the land-based culture of the South African abalone, Haliotis midae. In order for the industry to remain competitive in international markets, efficient use of water supplies and the development of water reuse technology is needed. This study assessed the changes in water quality between tanks in a tiered serial-use raceway in relation to accumulated biomass and water flow and estimated the flow index (FI) (L h⁻¹ kg⁻¹) at which growth becomes significantly affected. The effect of dietary protein level, supplementation of pure oxygen and addition of sodium hydroxide (NaOH⁻) on water quality and fundamental production parameters in the serial-use raceways was also assessed. The serial-use raceways were used as a tool to create a range of water quality conditions at which the growth, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and condition factor (CF) of "cocktail" size (60 – 70 mm) H. midae could be monitored. The metabolic activity of the abalone resulted in a deterioration in water quality between tanks in series. pH (r² = 0.99; p < 0.001) and dissolved oxygen concentration (r² = 0.99; p < 0.001) were positively correlated with flow index (pH = 7.38 FI°·°² ; dissolved oxygen = 6.92 FI°·°⁴), while free ammonia nitrogen (FAN) (r² = 0.99, p < 0.001) and nitrite (NO²⁻ - N) (r² = 0.93, p < 0.001) were negatively correlated with flow index (FAN = 8.02 FI⁻°·⁷¹). Nitrite concentrations increased over time indicating colonisation of Nitrosomonas bacteria on the basket surfaces. A flow index of 7.2 – 9.0 L h⁻¹ kg⁻¹ was estimated as the minimum to avoid significant reductions in weight and shell length gain and increases in FCR values. Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and FAN concentrations were significantly correlated to dietary protein (P) (t = 6.63, p < 0.0001 and t = 6.41, p < 0.0001, respectively) and flow index (t = 5.42, p < 0.0001 and t = 3.9, p < 0.0002, respectively) and could be estimated using the models TAN = 9.73 P – 110.3 log (FI), and FAN = 0.132 P – 1.10 log (FI). Mean FAN concentrations were 67 and 41 % lower in tanks fed a diet containing 22 and 26 % protein respectively, when compared to tanks fed a 33 % protein diet. Supplementation with pure oxygen (103 ± 8 % saturation) improved shell length gain (t = 3.45, p = 0.026) in abalone exposed to high FAN (2.43 ± 1.1 μg L⁻¹) and low pH (7.6 ± 0.13), relative to a treatment with no oxygen supplementation (92 ± 6 % saturation). Addition of a sodium hydroxide solution resulted in elevated mean pH in treatment raceways when compared to control raceways. The increased pH resulted in significantly higher weight gain (g abalone⁻¹) (F₁·₁₂ = 4.51; p = 0.055) and shell length gain (mm abalone⁻¹) (F₁·₁₂ = 4.56; p = 0.054) at an α-error level of < 5.5 %. In two trials, weight gain and shell length gain were significantly correlated to pH (p < 0.001), and multiple regression of pH, dissolved oxygen and FAN consistently revealed pH to be the best predictor of growth. It is therefore suggested that decreasing pH is the first limiting water quality variable for abalone in serial-use raceways. As a decrease in water pH is linked to respiration by the abalone and subsequent increase in dissolved carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, future studies should examine the effects of CO₂ on H. midae metabolic rate, calcification rate and health. The results of this study will contribute toward our understanding of the specific water quality requirements for H. midae in commercial aquaculture systems, and influence the design and management procedures for abalone water reuse systems.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
- Authors: Naylor, Matthew Aubrey
- Date: 2012
- Subjects: Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Effect of water quality on , Abalones -- Nutrition -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds , Abalones -- Growth , Fish culture -- Water reuse
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5335 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005181 , Haliotis midae -- South Africa , Abalone culture -- South Africa , Abalones -- Effect of water quality on , Abalones -- Nutrition -- South Africa , Abalones -- Feeding and feeds , Abalones -- Growth , Fish culture -- Water reuse
- Description: An understanding of species specific water quality requirements is essential for efficient production of aquaculture products, an aspect not well documented for the land-based culture of the South African abalone, Haliotis midae. In order for the industry to remain competitive in international markets, efficient use of water supplies and the development of water reuse technology is needed. This study assessed the changes in water quality between tanks in a tiered serial-use raceway in relation to accumulated biomass and water flow and estimated the flow index (FI) (L h⁻¹ kg⁻¹) at which growth becomes significantly affected. The effect of dietary protein level, supplementation of pure oxygen and addition of sodium hydroxide (NaOH⁻) on water quality and fundamental production parameters in the serial-use raceways was also assessed. The serial-use raceways were used as a tool to create a range of water quality conditions at which the growth, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and condition factor (CF) of "cocktail" size (60 – 70 mm) H. midae could be monitored. The metabolic activity of the abalone resulted in a deterioration in water quality between tanks in series. pH (r² = 0.99; p < 0.001) and dissolved oxygen concentration (r² = 0.99; p < 0.001) were positively correlated with flow index (pH = 7.38 FI°·°² ; dissolved oxygen = 6.92 FI°·°⁴), while free ammonia nitrogen (FAN) (r² = 0.99, p < 0.001) and nitrite (NO²⁻ - N) (r² = 0.93, p < 0.001) were negatively correlated with flow index (FAN = 8.02 FI⁻°·⁷¹). Nitrite concentrations increased over time indicating colonisation of Nitrosomonas bacteria on the basket surfaces. A flow index of 7.2 – 9.0 L h⁻¹ kg⁻¹ was estimated as the minimum to avoid significant reductions in weight and shell length gain and increases in FCR values. Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and FAN concentrations were significantly correlated to dietary protein (P) (t = 6.63, p < 0.0001 and t = 6.41, p < 0.0001, respectively) and flow index (t = 5.42, p < 0.0001 and t = 3.9, p < 0.0002, respectively) and could be estimated using the models TAN = 9.73 P – 110.3 log (FI), and FAN = 0.132 P – 1.10 log (FI). Mean FAN concentrations were 67 and 41 % lower in tanks fed a diet containing 22 and 26 % protein respectively, when compared to tanks fed a 33 % protein diet. Supplementation with pure oxygen (103 ± 8 % saturation) improved shell length gain (t = 3.45, p = 0.026) in abalone exposed to high FAN (2.43 ± 1.1 μg L⁻¹) and low pH (7.6 ± 0.13), relative to a treatment with no oxygen supplementation (92 ± 6 % saturation). Addition of a sodium hydroxide solution resulted in elevated mean pH in treatment raceways when compared to control raceways. The increased pH resulted in significantly higher weight gain (g abalone⁻¹) (F₁·₁₂ = 4.51; p = 0.055) and shell length gain (mm abalone⁻¹) (F₁·₁₂ = 4.56; p = 0.054) at an α-error level of < 5.5 %. In two trials, weight gain and shell length gain were significantly correlated to pH (p < 0.001), and multiple regression of pH, dissolved oxygen and FAN consistently revealed pH to be the best predictor of growth. It is therefore suggested that decreasing pH is the first limiting water quality variable for abalone in serial-use raceways. As a decrease in water pH is linked to respiration by the abalone and subsequent increase in dissolved carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, future studies should examine the effects of CO₂ on H. midae metabolic rate, calcification rate and health. The results of this study will contribute toward our understanding of the specific water quality requirements for H. midae in commercial aquaculture systems, and influence the design and management procedures for abalone water reuse systems.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2012
The development of a practical diet for juvenile dusky kob, Argyrosomus japonicus, for the South African mariculture industry
- Authors: Woolley, Lindsey
- Date: 2009
- Subjects: Fishes -- Nutrition -- Requirements , Fishes -- Food , Fishes -- Growth , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Nutrition , Sciaenidae -- Nutrition
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5257 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005100 , Fishes -- Nutrition -- Requirements , Fishes -- Food , Fishes -- Growth , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Nutrition , Sciaenidae -- Nutrition
- Description: The lack of locally manufactured marine finfish diets motivated the current project, which aimed to develop a practical diet specifically formulated for dusky kob. The first growth trial investigated the effect of pellet texture (i.e. hard versus soft pellets) and the inclusion of an additional binder, test treatments were compared to two reference diets. There was no significant difference in weight gain between fish fed the hard or soft pellets (p=0.17), over nine weeks. The fish fed the local trout feed weighed significantly less than those fed the test diets (p=0.003). There was no significant difference in leaching rate amongst treatments (p=0.45). A hard pelleted diet without gelatin is recommended in the commercial culture of dusky kob. Pellets with different physical shapes were tested to determine the effect of shape on settling speeds. A square shaped pellet had a slower sinking rate compared to a round shaped pellet (p<0.0001). Juvenile dusky kob, held in cages, fed the square pellets grew significantly faster than the fish fed the round pellet, with a mean weight gain of 16.81 ± 0.45 g (p=0.018). A growth trial was used to optimize the protein to energy (PE) ratio by adjusting dietary protein and lipid levels. Fish fed the diets with high levels of protein (46 % protein) achieved the better growth rates (125 % weight gain) compared to the lower protein diets (92 % weight gain) (p<0.0001). There was no significant difference in total ammonia production (TAN) level for the 46 and 42 % protein diets (p=0.68). The overall performance of the prototype diet was investigated in a closed recirculating system. Growth and FCR of the fish fed the prototype diet was on a par to those fed the commercially available diet currently used in the local farming industry. There was no significant difference in the blood chemistry for fish held at increased stocking densities. The prototype diet is suitable for use in recirculating systems, as there were no negative effects on water quality parameters. This study has laid a foundation for the manufacture of a practical commercial dusky kob diet in South Africa.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2009
- Authors: Woolley, Lindsey
- Date: 2009
- Subjects: Fishes -- Nutrition -- Requirements , Fishes -- Food , Fishes -- Growth , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Nutrition , Sciaenidae -- Nutrition
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5257 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005100 , Fishes -- Nutrition -- Requirements , Fishes -- Food , Fishes -- Growth , Fish culture , Argyrosomus -- Nutrition , Sciaenidae -- Nutrition
- Description: The lack of locally manufactured marine finfish diets motivated the current project, which aimed to develop a practical diet specifically formulated for dusky kob. The first growth trial investigated the effect of pellet texture (i.e. hard versus soft pellets) and the inclusion of an additional binder, test treatments were compared to two reference diets. There was no significant difference in weight gain between fish fed the hard or soft pellets (p=0.17), over nine weeks. The fish fed the local trout feed weighed significantly less than those fed the test diets (p=0.003). There was no significant difference in leaching rate amongst treatments (p=0.45). A hard pelleted diet without gelatin is recommended in the commercial culture of dusky kob. Pellets with different physical shapes were tested to determine the effect of shape on settling speeds. A square shaped pellet had a slower sinking rate compared to a round shaped pellet (p<0.0001). Juvenile dusky kob, held in cages, fed the square pellets grew significantly faster than the fish fed the round pellet, with a mean weight gain of 16.81 ± 0.45 g (p=0.018). A growth trial was used to optimize the protein to energy (PE) ratio by adjusting dietary protein and lipid levels. Fish fed the diets with high levels of protein (46 % protein) achieved the better growth rates (125 % weight gain) compared to the lower protein diets (92 % weight gain) (p<0.0001). There was no significant difference in total ammonia production (TAN) level for the 46 and 42 % protein diets (p=0.68). The overall performance of the prototype diet was investigated in a closed recirculating system. Growth and FCR of the fish fed the prototype diet was on a par to those fed the commercially available diet currently used in the local farming industry. There was no significant difference in the blood chemistry for fish held at increased stocking densities. The prototype diet is suitable for use in recirculating systems, as there were no negative effects on water quality parameters. This study has laid a foundation for the manufacture of a practical commercial dusky kob diet in South Africa.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2009
Water quality, abalone growth and the potential for integrated mariculture on a South African abalone Haliotis midae L. farm
- Authors: Yearsley, Rowan David
- Date: 2008
- Subjects: Abalones -- South Africa Abalone culture -- South Africa Abalones -- Growth Mariculture -- South Africa Water quality -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5334 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005180
- Description: Abalone Haliotis midae farming in South Africa is highly intensive, employing pump-ashore, flow-through systems. Despite the known sensitivity of abalone to water quality, there is only a rudimentary understanding of water quality dynamics on South African abalone farms and its effects on abalone production. Furthermore, the potential for reusing the relatively dilute abalone farm effluent to culture other animal species has not been investigated. This study investigated the dynamics of water quality and growth on a South African abalone farm and assessed the suitability of the effluent for the culture of silver kob Argyrosomus inodorus and bloodworm Arenicola loveni loveni. Monitoring of water quality and abalone growth in abalone tanks revealed that oxygen concentrations decreased, while H⁺ ion and free-ammonia (NH₃) concentration increased in a gradient between the inflow and outflow. Abalone growth was positively correlated with oxygen concentration and negatively correlated with free-ammonia and H⁺ ion concentration. The oxygen (O) concentration of the farm influent was dependent upon the influents’ temperature (T) and was described by the relationship O (mg L⁻¹) = 11.244 – 0.208T (r²=0.74). Linear regression analysis of data collected from abalone farm tanks revealed that the concentration of total ammonia at the outflow of abalone tanks (μg TAN L⁻¹) was dependant upon temperature (°C), flow-rate (L s⁻¹ kg⁻¹ H. midae), abalone size (g) and length of time since the tank was last cleaned (d) (n = 125, r² = 0.80). The production of total ammonia (μg TAN s⁻¹ kg⁻¹) was related to temperature, abalone size and days that the tanks remained un-cleaned (n = 125; r² = 0.81). A diurnal cycle of respiration was evident in abalone tanks with higher oxygen consumption and H+ ion production at night. The oxygen concentration of farm effluent was related to temperature, farm biomass and flow rate by means of a linear regression equation (n = 40; r² = 0.69). The results demonstrated the importance of optimising the flow-rate per unit of biomass for various temperatures and sizes of abalone. As abalone size and temperature cannot be controlled under farm conditions, the flow-rate per unit of biomass which the abalone culture system receives will determine the quality of the culture water. The specific growth rate (0.48 ± 0.01 % BW d⁻¹), mortality (1.8 ± 0.5 %), feed conversion ratio (3.0 ± 0.2) and protein efficiency ratio (1.0 ± 0.1) of silver kob kept in either abalone farm effluent or control seawater for 120 days did not differ significantly (t-test, P>0.05). A 90 day growth trial indicated that abalone farm effluent is a suitable culture medium for bloodworm. Bloodworm supplied with control seawater lost weight at 0.19 ± 0.04 % BW d-1, while those given abalone effluent grew at 0.39 ± 0.07 % BW d⁻¹. Mortality was 6 ± 3 % in effluent and 11 ± 8 % in seawater. The bloodworm were efficient at processing solid waste. Abalone farm effluent initially contained 7.7 ± 13 mg L⁻¹ more suspended solids than control seawater, which contained 3.5 ± 0.5 mg L⁻¹, but after passing through bloodworm systems the concentration in abalone effluent was reduced to only 1.4 ± 3.5 mg L⁻¹ above that in control seawater. Therefore, abalone farm effluent could be reused as a culture medium for both silver kob and bloodworm. Future work is needed to investigate aspects of the feasibility of such systems such as growth rates at different sizes and stocking densities.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2008
- Authors: Yearsley, Rowan David
- Date: 2008
- Subjects: Abalones -- South Africa Abalone culture -- South Africa Abalones -- Growth Mariculture -- South Africa Water quality -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5334 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005180
- Description: Abalone Haliotis midae farming in South Africa is highly intensive, employing pump-ashore, flow-through systems. Despite the known sensitivity of abalone to water quality, there is only a rudimentary understanding of water quality dynamics on South African abalone farms and its effects on abalone production. Furthermore, the potential for reusing the relatively dilute abalone farm effluent to culture other animal species has not been investigated. This study investigated the dynamics of water quality and growth on a South African abalone farm and assessed the suitability of the effluent for the culture of silver kob Argyrosomus inodorus and bloodworm Arenicola loveni loveni. Monitoring of water quality and abalone growth in abalone tanks revealed that oxygen concentrations decreased, while H⁺ ion and free-ammonia (NH₃) concentration increased in a gradient between the inflow and outflow. Abalone growth was positively correlated with oxygen concentration and negatively correlated with free-ammonia and H⁺ ion concentration. The oxygen (O) concentration of the farm influent was dependent upon the influents’ temperature (T) and was described by the relationship O (mg L⁻¹) = 11.244 – 0.208T (r²=0.74). Linear regression analysis of data collected from abalone farm tanks revealed that the concentration of total ammonia at the outflow of abalone tanks (μg TAN L⁻¹) was dependant upon temperature (°C), flow-rate (L s⁻¹ kg⁻¹ H. midae), abalone size (g) and length of time since the tank was last cleaned (d) (n = 125, r² = 0.80). The production of total ammonia (μg TAN s⁻¹ kg⁻¹) was related to temperature, abalone size and days that the tanks remained un-cleaned (n = 125; r² = 0.81). A diurnal cycle of respiration was evident in abalone tanks with higher oxygen consumption and H+ ion production at night. The oxygen concentration of farm effluent was related to temperature, farm biomass and flow rate by means of a linear regression equation (n = 40; r² = 0.69). The results demonstrated the importance of optimising the flow-rate per unit of biomass for various temperatures and sizes of abalone. As abalone size and temperature cannot be controlled under farm conditions, the flow-rate per unit of biomass which the abalone culture system receives will determine the quality of the culture water. The specific growth rate (0.48 ± 0.01 % BW d⁻¹), mortality (1.8 ± 0.5 %), feed conversion ratio (3.0 ± 0.2) and protein efficiency ratio (1.0 ± 0.1) of silver kob kept in either abalone farm effluent or control seawater for 120 days did not differ significantly (t-test, P>0.05). A 90 day growth trial indicated that abalone farm effluent is a suitable culture medium for bloodworm. Bloodworm supplied with control seawater lost weight at 0.19 ± 0.04 % BW d-1, while those given abalone effluent grew at 0.39 ± 0.07 % BW d⁻¹. Mortality was 6 ± 3 % in effluent and 11 ± 8 % in seawater. The bloodworm were efficient at processing solid waste. Abalone farm effluent initially contained 7.7 ± 13 mg L⁻¹ more suspended solids than control seawater, which contained 3.5 ± 0.5 mg L⁻¹, but after passing through bloodworm systems the concentration in abalone effluent was reduced to only 1.4 ± 3.5 mg L⁻¹ above that in control seawater. Therefore, abalone farm effluent could be reused as a culture medium for both silver kob and bloodworm. Future work is needed to investigate aspects of the feasibility of such systems such as growth rates at different sizes and stocking densities.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2008
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