The impact of urban gardening on household food security: evidence from Makhanda East, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
- Bruwer, Guillaume Marcel Xavier
- Authors: Bruwer, Guillaume Marcel Xavier
- Date: 2022-04-06
- Subjects: Food security South Africa Makhanda , Urban agriculture South Africa Makhanda , Urban gardening South Africa Makhanda , Sustainable development South Africa Makhanda , South Africa Economic conditions , Subsistence farming South Africa Makhanda , Economic impact analysis South Africa Makhanda , Propensity Score Matching (PSM)
- Language: English
- Type: Academic theses , Master's theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/263575 , vital:53640
- Description: Urban gardening in townships is a common coping strategy employed by poor inhabitants to improve food security, earn income through sales, and generate cost-savings through home consumption of fresh produce. Food security is a cornerstone of human development and welfare, and the achievement thereof remains a global challenge. The majority of academic research and policy documentation traditionally positions food insecurity as a rural phenomenon. However, recent trends point to an increase in food insecurity in urban areas, particularly in low-income areas such as townships. In South Africa, rapid urbanization has led to burgeoning townships and rapidly expanding low-income informal settlements characterised by poverty, unemployment, and food insecurity. Research concerned with the role that urban agricultural production plays in contributing to the food security of poor households is scarce and not well understood. This research, therefore, aimed to contribute to the limited research which specifically examines urban food security, and the role urban agriculture play in the achievement of household food security. The study employed collective action theory and utility theory to firstly provides an in-depth examination of the determinants of participation in urban gardening using Probit regression modeling. The second research objective was to perform an impact evaluation of participation in urban gardening on selected household food security indicators including Household Dietary Diversity Scores (HDDS), the Household Hunger Scale (HHS) and the Coping Strategy Index (CSI) using Propensity Score Matching (PSM). Purposive and snowball sampling methods were employed to obtain a sample of 60 urban gardeners and a control group of 55 non-gardening households from Extension 6, 7 and 10 townships as well as Joza Location in Makhanda East, Eastern Cape Province. Households were surveyed using a structured household food security questionnaire. A focus group discussion was held with the Linomtha Community Garden members and key informant interviews were undertaken with important stakeholders such as the local extension officers. Descriptive analysis revealed that urban gardening households (UGs) had older household heads who were less educated, and that land and water availability were the dominant constraints to increases in agricultural production. Results from the probit and average marginal effects models showed that the likelihood of participation significantly increased when household unemployment and dependency increased and that households who were engaged in off-farm economic activity were more likely to participate in urban gardening. The impact evaluation was performed using PSM and Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT). Analysis illustrated that participation in urban gardening does significantly reduce both the full CSI and Reduced CSI. Thus, participation in urban gardening improves the food security of participating households by significantly reducing the frequency of participating households (UGs) applying undesirable coping strategies such as sending children elsewhere other than the household, borrowing food from other households and reducing the number of meals eaten in a day due to food shortages. This study posits that urban gardening alone will not eradicate the rampant food insecurity and poverty which pervades in South Africa’s townships. However, urban gardening participation does contribute to the construction of a sustainable, urban livelihood by reducing the number and severity of the undesirable coping strategies that food insecure households employ by providing some nutritious produce as well improved social capital through gardening networks and supporting institutions. It is recommended that policy makers, at a national and municipal level, need to create a clearer directive for the integration of urban food production into the urban food marketplace thus increasing access to income generating channels for small-scale home, and community gardeners. Co-operation between private and public institutions for food security and urban gardeners needs to be fostered and awareness of opportunities to participate in urban gardens needs to be improved. Central to the developmental challenges that rapid increases in urbanization and food insecurity in poor urban areas, is the need for national and local governments to improve access to economic opportunities in township areas - both in urban agriculture and in other, skills intensive sectors. , Thesis (MEcon) -- Faculty of Commerce, Economics and Economic History, 2022
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2022-04-06
- Authors: Bruwer, Guillaume Marcel Xavier
- Date: 2022-04-06
- Subjects: Food security South Africa Makhanda , Urban agriculture South Africa Makhanda , Urban gardening South Africa Makhanda , Sustainable development South Africa Makhanda , South Africa Economic conditions , Subsistence farming South Africa Makhanda , Economic impact analysis South Africa Makhanda , Propensity Score Matching (PSM)
- Language: English
- Type: Academic theses , Master's theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/263575 , vital:53640
- Description: Urban gardening in townships is a common coping strategy employed by poor inhabitants to improve food security, earn income through sales, and generate cost-savings through home consumption of fresh produce. Food security is a cornerstone of human development and welfare, and the achievement thereof remains a global challenge. The majority of academic research and policy documentation traditionally positions food insecurity as a rural phenomenon. However, recent trends point to an increase in food insecurity in urban areas, particularly in low-income areas such as townships. In South Africa, rapid urbanization has led to burgeoning townships and rapidly expanding low-income informal settlements characterised by poverty, unemployment, and food insecurity. Research concerned with the role that urban agricultural production plays in contributing to the food security of poor households is scarce and not well understood. This research, therefore, aimed to contribute to the limited research which specifically examines urban food security, and the role urban agriculture play in the achievement of household food security. The study employed collective action theory and utility theory to firstly provides an in-depth examination of the determinants of participation in urban gardening using Probit regression modeling. The second research objective was to perform an impact evaluation of participation in urban gardening on selected household food security indicators including Household Dietary Diversity Scores (HDDS), the Household Hunger Scale (HHS) and the Coping Strategy Index (CSI) using Propensity Score Matching (PSM). Purposive and snowball sampling methods were employed to obtain a sample of 60 urban gardeners and a control group of 55 non-gardening households from Extension 6, 7 and 10 townships as well as Joza Location in Makhanda East, Eastern Cape Province. Households were surveyed using a structured household food security questionnaire. A focus group discussion was held with the Linomtha Community Garden members and key informant interviews were undertaken with important stakeholders such as the local extension officers. Descriptive analysis revealed that urban gardening households (UGs) had older household heads who were less educated, and that land and water availability were the dominant constraints to increases in agricultural production. Results from the probit and average marginal effects models showed that the likelihood of participation significantly increased when household unemployment and dependency increased and that households who were engaged in off-farm economic activity were more likely to participate in urban gardening. The impact evaluation was performed using PSM and Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT). Analysis illustrated that participation in urban gardening does significantly reduce both the full CSI and Reduced CSI. Thus, participation in urban gardening improves the food security of participating households by significantly reducing the frequency of participating households (UGs) applying undesirable coping strategies such as sending children elsewhere other than the household, borrowing food from other households and reducing the number of meals eaten in a day due to food shortages. This study posits that urban gardening alone will not eradicate the rampant food insecurity and poverty which pervades in South Africa’s townships. However, urban gardening participation does contribute to the construction of a sustainable, urban livelihood by reducing the number and severity of the undesirable coping strategies that food insecure households employ by providing some nutritious produce as well improved social capital through gardening networks and supporting institutions. It is recommended that policy makers, at a national and municipal level, need to create a clearer directive for the integration of urban food production into the urban food marketplace thus increasing access to income generating channels for small-scale home, and community gardeners. Co-operation between private and public institutions for food security and urban gardeners needs to be fostered and awareness of opportunities to participate in urban gardens needs to be improved. Central to the developmental challenges that rapid increases in urbanization and food insecurity in poor urban areas, is the need for national and local governments to improve access to economic opportunities in township areas - both in urban agriculture and in other, skills intensive sectors. , Thesis (MEcon) -- Faculty of Commerce, Economics and Economic History, 2022
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2022-04-06
The role of agricultural support programmes on the livelihoods of smallholder maize farmers in Lesotho: asset utilisation, productivity and perceptions
- Authors: Mohlahatsa, Taole
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Agriculture and state -- Lesotho , Agriculture -- Economic aspects -- Lesotho , Farms, Small -- Government policy -- Lesotho , Farms, Small -- Lesotho , Agricultural assistance -- Lesotho , Rural development -- Lesotho
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MCom
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/71580 , vital:29914
- Description: The agricultural sector is widely considered an important contributor to economic development in least developed countries. It plays an important role in Lesotho and has been the backbone of rural activities and the prime employer of Basotho citizens. Smallholder farming is recognised by the government of Lesotho as a vehicle for addressing food security and poverty reduction. Maize is the principal staple crop produced by about 90 percent of farmers in Lesotho and it constitutes about 80 percent of the Basotho diet. Maize production is highly affected by climate change and is characterised by fluctuating yields because of erratic rainfall. In addition to unfavorable climate change, smallholder farmers in Lesotho experience challenges such as lack of farming inputs, limited access to markets and limited financial capital. These constraints confine them to a life of subsistence farming with low production and increased incidences of poverty. The government of Lesotho has intervened in the smallholder agricultural sector to stimulate production and productivity by introducing some agricultural programmes such as (i) the National Fertiliser and Input subsidy, (ii) the Smallholder Agricultural Development Programme, (iii) the National Block Farming, and (iv) the Integrated Watershed Management Programme. However, despite such government interventions, production in the smallholder agricultural sector continues to face recurring constraints. Studies on the National Block Farming Programme have showed that the programme has had limited impact on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Furthermore, farmers believe the Integrated Watershed Management Programme has a biased selection criteria as selection of areas is influenced by politicians who favour areas where they have a large political following and marginilise other areas. These concerns have also led to low participation rates in such programmes as wealthier, large scale farmers capture most of the benefits of government programmes. Disproportionate benefits of agricultural programmes to smallholder farmers imply that they continue to face the same constraints in production and have to find alternative ways of maintaining production and selling excess produce to sustain their livelihoods. The main goal of this research is therefore to study the livelihoods of smallholder maize farmers in Lesotho and how agricultural support programmes influence their production of maize. The study adopted a pragmatic mixed methods approach with a qualitative dominant sequential design. Accordingly, both quantitative and qualitative data was used to address the research goal. Quantitative data collected from the Lesotho Bureau of Statistics and the World Bank was used for trend analysis on maize productivity, temperature and rainfall over the period 1980-2016. Qualitative primary data was collected by conducting focus group discussions with smallholder maize farmers and key stakeholder interviews using the sustainable livelihood framework as a conceptual guide. The study comprised of a total of 85 research participants consisting of 75 smallholder maize farmers and 10 key stakeholders. Farmers were selected from 10 key maize producing areas in Leribe and Mafeteng districts in Leribe. Results revealed fluctuating maize productivity and productivity growth rates where such fluctuations are caused by government intervention and natural calamities in the form of erratic rains and dry spells. Droughts and late arrival of subsidised inputs are the chief constraints to maize production. In relation to livelihood assets, human and social assets are the more available assets relative to other assets (financial, natural and physical) of the sustainable livelihood framework. Furthermore, the National Fertiliser and Input subsidy Programme and the Smallholder Agricultural Development Programme are the most beneficial programmes to farmers livelihoods as they increase the accessibility of limited livelihood assets and therefore allowing farmers to achieve their livelihood goals. In contrast, the National Block Farming and the Integrated Watershed Management Programme are the least beneficial programmes to farmers’ livelihoods and are biased in their geographical targeting criteria. The study recommends that the government revises all selected support programmes in this study in areas warranting improvements so as to fairly and efficiently allocate resources that meet the needs of farmers. The study also recommends that farmers put more effort in adopting new technologies and strategies to improve production of maize in areas where government intervention has failed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
- Authors: Mohlahatsa, Taole
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Agriculture and state -- Lesotho , Agriculture -- Economic aspects -- Lesotho , Farms, Small -- Government policy -- Lesotho , Farms, Small -- Lesotho , Agricultural assistance -- Lesotho , Rural development -- Lesotho
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MCom
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/71580 , vital:29914
- Description: The agricultural sector is widely considered an important contributor to economic development in least developed countries. It plays an important role in Lesotho and has been the backbone of rural activities and the prime employer of Basotho citizens. Smallholder farming is recognised by the government of Lesotho as a vehicle for addressing food security and poverty reduction. Maize is the principal staple crop produced by about 90 percent of farmers in Lesotho and it constitutes about 80 percent of the Basotho diet. Maize production is highly affected by climate change and is characterised by fluctuating yields because of erratic rainfall. In addition to unfavorable climate change, smallholder farmers in Lesotho experience challenges such as lack of farming inputs, limited access to markets and limited financial capital. These constraints confine them to a life of subsistence farming with low production and increased incidences of poverty. The government of Lesotho has intervened in the smallholder agricultural sector to stimulate production and productivity by introducing some agricultural programmes such as (i) the National Fertiliser and Input subsidy, (ii) the Smallholder Agricultural Development Programme, (iii) the National Block Farming, and (iv) the Integrated Watershed Management Programme. However, despite such government interventions, production in the smallholder agricultural sector continues to face recurring constraints. Studies on the National Block Farming Programme have showed that the programme has had limited impact on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Furthermore, farmers believe the Integrated Watershed Management Programme has a biased selection criteria as selection of areas is influenced by politicians who favour areas where they have a large political following and marginilise other areas. These concerns have also led to low participation rates in such programmes as wealthier, large scale farmers capture most of the benefits of government programmes. Disproportionate benefits of agricultural programmes to smallholder farmers imply that they continue to face the same constraints in production and have to find alternative ways of maintaining production and selling excess produce to sustain their livelihoods. The main goal of this research is therefore to study the livelihoods of smallholder maize farmers in Lesotho and how agricultural support programmes influence their production of maize. The study adopted a pragmatic mixed methods approach with a qualitative dominant sequential design. Accordingly, both quantitative and qualitative data was used to address the research goal. Quantitative data collected from the Lesotho Bureau of Statistics and the World Bank was used for trend analysis on maize productivity, temperature and rainfall over the period 1980-2016. Qualitative primary data was collected by conducting focus group discussions with smallholder maize farmers and key stakeholder interviews using the sustainable livelihood framework as a conceptual guide. The study comprised of a total of 85 research participants consisting of 75 smallholder maize farmers and 10 key stakeholders. Farmers were selected from 10 key maize producing areas in Leribe and Mafeteng districts in Leribe. Results revealed fluctuating maize productivity and productivity growth rates where such fluctuations are caused by government intervention and natural calamities in the form of erratic rains and dry spells. Droughts and late arrival of subsidised inputs are the chief constraints to maize production. In relation to livelihood assets, human and social assets are the more available assets relative to other assets (financial, natural and physical) of the sustainable livelihood framework. Furthermore, the National Fertiliser and Input subsidy Programme and the Smallholder Agricultural Development Programme are the most beneficial programmes to farmers livelihoods as they increase the accessibility of limited livelihood assets and therefore allowing farmers to achieve their livelihood goals. In contrast, the National Block Farming and the Integrated Watershed Management Programme are the least beneficial programmes to farmers’ livelihoods and are biased in their geographical targeting criteria. The study recommends that the government revises all selected support programmes in this study in areas warranting improvements so as to fairly and efficiently allocate resources that meet the needs of farmers. The study also recommends that farmers put more effort in adopting new technologies and strategies to improve production of maize in areas where government intervention has failed.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
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