An investigation of source rocks and depositional environments on acid mine drainage in South African coal mines: a comparison of the main Karoo basin and sub-basins.
- Authors: Ncube, Lindani
- Date: 2015
- Subjects: Mine drainage -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa , Coal mines and mining -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa , Acid mine drainage -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Doctoral theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/19556 , vital:43139
- Description: The coal deposits have been and continue to be the primary source of energy in South Africa. The continuous use of coal presents many challenges that includes genesis of acid mine drainage (AMD) which is as a result of the oxidation of predominant pyrite (FeS2) and other sulphides. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of source rocks and their depositional environments on AMD generation in South African coal mine environments. Five collieries from five coalfields were selected as case studies: Brandspruit in the Highveld, Vaalkrantz in the Vryheid, the Elitheni in the Molteno-Indwe, the Arnot in the Witbank and the Malatleng Exploration Project in the Waterberg Coalfields. Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries are located in the Main Karoo Basin, while the Witbank and the Waterberg Coalfields are located in Sub-Basins. The study investigated a variety of indices such as palaeo-depositional environments, mineral assemblages, geochemical signatures, water quality parameters, acid base accounting (ABA) and water leach tests for the coal and associated non-coal strata. An effort was made to establish the relationship between the mineralogy of the studied lithologies and the associated water quality. The study resulted in delineation of detrital and diagenetic rock components and interpretation of source area of rock types and the origin and timing of diagenetic alterations. Sandstone units are prevalent, except in the Waterberg Coalfield where mudstones are prevalent. Classifications of the mineralogical composition with descriptive adjectives yield the rock names arkose to sub-arkose categories in the Main Karoo Basin, and sub-arenites to quartz arenites in the Sub-Basins with the sandstones of recycled origin. Further, the sandstones of the Main Karoo Basin are of mixed provenance whilst those of Sub-Basins represent cratonic interior provenance. Sandstone from the Main Karoo Basin generally exhibit high concentrations of feldspars, which favour either high relief, arid or arctic climates with less chemical weathering at the source area. The presence of glauconite in sediments of the Main Karoo Basin attests to a marine continental shelf depositional environment. Sediments of the Main Karoo Basin have high contents of tadpole-shaped pyrite in coal and non-coal strata as compared to sediments of the Sub-Basins. The observed pyrite is ascribed to early diagenetic origin, and is closely related to the generation of acid mining drainage. The sediments have experienced an involved sequence of diagenetic alterations. The alterations considered to be typical for sandstones in the Main Karoo Basin are calcite cementation, feldspar dissolution, kaolinite infilling, pyrite grain coatings, albitization and pressure solution; whereas, quartz overgrowth and clay matrix filling are characteristics of sediments of Sub-Basins. The sequence and distribution of these alterations are related to the source mineral composition, depositional environment, stratigraphic relationships and burial history of the sediments. A direct link exists among the depositional environments, the mineral assemblages and the geochemical compositions of the lithologies. SiO2 is the dominant major oxide and is abundant in coals from coalfields located in the Sub-Basins. Si, Al, Fe, Ca, S, Mg, K and Na show strong association with their discrete minerals. The sandstones are substantially enriched in elements that are chemically immobile and associated with terrigenous influx, such as SiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2. The observed high contents of SiO2 are probably due to source rocks and silicification. SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 are related to clay and heavy minerals, with elevated Fe2O3 (Total) content in sediments of the Main Karoo Basin ascribed to sulphidization. Sediments from the Main Karoo Basin are enriched in both Na2O and K2O due to albitization and muscovitization. Substantial concentrations of Ba, Rb and Zr are in accordance to the high amount of phyllosilicates and heavy minerals. Muscovitization contributes to the correlation of Rb and Ba with K2O. The shales are substantially depleted in SiO2, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, TiO2 and Fe2O3 due to weathering and diagenetic alteration, but are enriched in Al2O3 and P2O5. The ABA test clearly indicates that sandstones from the Main Karoo Basin have a potential of generating AMD as they contain sufficient pyrite to generate acid, with the final pH values of the samples turning acidic upon complete oxidation of pyrite. On the contrary, sediments of SubBasins contain sufficient calcite that serves to limit the amount of acid generation. Both sandstone and coal from collieries representing the Main Karoo Basin are characterised by elevated contents of S percent in comparison to coal from collieries representing the Sub-Basins. In general, the quality of water is as a result of a combination of complex geochemical interactions that involves various ions from different sources. Water leaching test shows that the leachates have varied chemical compositions with pH values in the range of 4.5-9 for the sandstone, and 2– 8.9 for the coal leachates. Variations in the pH values are attributed to regional phenomena controlled by the mineralogical and hydrological environments. Furthermore, the variation in pH is ascribed to the presence of acid forming pyrite and acid neutralizing carbonate minerals that are highly reactive in the mining environment. Elements Na, Ca, Mg and K occur in non-compliant concentrations in both coal and non-coal leachates indicating their abundance in all of the lithologies. Na enrichment in the lithologies is associated with albite, clay minerals and Al-Ksulphate coatings. Elements Fe, Al, Cd and Pb are easily leached from the lithologies. According to the equilibrium model, gibbsite, cuprite, diaspore and boehmite are the supersaturated minerals in the lithologies. Influencing factors such as the mineralogical composition of rocks are reflected in the wide variation of pH, TDS, EC and the ion concentrations of the studied water samples. The pH of the studied areas is neutral to alkaline. High levels of TDS and EC are observed in the Brandspruit Colliery, which is due to dissolution of soluble salts from the rock sequence that the water passes through. The anion chemistry shows the dominance of SO4 2- in the surface and groundwater of Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries, whereas HCO3 - dominates in the Arnot Colliery. SO4 2- is ascribed to the oxidative weathering of pyrites. Cldominates in groundwater from the Arnot Colliery and the Waterberg Coalfield. The cation chemistry is dominated by Na+ in the surface and groundwater of the Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries. Mg2+ dominates in groundwater from the Arnot Colliery, while K+ dominates in the Waterberg Coalfield. Fe is highly enriched in water from the Brandspruit Colliery, and is linked to the oxidation of pyrite. Carbonates are the supersaturated minerals in the Sub-Basins whilst sulphates are supersaturated in the Main Karoo Basin. The research shows that variations in regional mineral distribution is a result of a palaeo-deposition environment that was of marine nature for the coal sequence in the Main Karoo Basin and of fresh water for the coal sequence in Sub-Basins. A direct link therefore exists between depositional environments, mineral assemblages and whole rock geochemistry. It can be concluded that AMD is directly linked to pyrite and other sulphides, the coal mines located in the Main Karoo Basin have the possibility to deteriorate surface- and ground-water quality and to generate AMD during the mining processes; coal miners need to seriously consider applying environmental protection measures when mining coal in the Main Karoo Basin. Whereas, coal mining in the Sub-Basins has low possibility of generating AMD and pollution. , Thesis (PhD) (Geology) -- University of Fort Hare, 2015
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2015
- Authors: Ncube, Lindani
- Date: 2015
- Subjects: Mine drainage -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa , Coal mines and mining -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa , Acid mine drainage -- Environmental aspects -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Doctoral theses , text
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/19556 , vital:43139
- Description: The coal deposits have been and continue to be the primary source of energy in South Africa. The continuous use of coal presents many challenges that includes genesis of acid mine drainage (AMD) which is as a result of the oxidation of predominant pyrite (FeS2) and other sulphides. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of source rocks and their depositional environments on AMD generation in South African coal mine environments. Five collieries from five coalfields were selected as case studies: Brandspruit in the Highveld, Vaalkrantz in the Vryheid, the Elitheni in the Molteno-Indwe, the Arnot in the Witbank and the Malatleng Exploration Project in the Waterberg Coalfields. Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries are located in the Main Karoo Basin, while the Witbank and the Waterberg Coalfields are located in Sub-Basins. The study investigated a variety of indices such as palaeo-depositional environments, mineral assemblages, geochemical signatures, water quality parameters, acid base accounting (ABA) and water leach tests for the coal and associated non-coal strata. An effort was made to establish the relationship between the mineralogy of the studied lithologies and the associated water quality. The study resulted in delineation of detrital and diagenetic rock components and interpretation of source area of rock types and the origin and timing of diagenetic alterations. Sandstone units are prevalent, except in the Waterberg Coalfield where mudstones are prevalent. Classifications of the mineralogical composition with descriptive adjectives yield the rock names arkose to sub-arkose categories in the Main Karoo Basin, and sub-arenites to quartz arenites in the Sub-Basins with the sandstones of recycled origin. Further, the sandstones of the Main Karoo Basin are of mixed provenance whilst those of Sub-Basins represent cratonic interior provenance. Sandstone from the Main Karoo Basin generally exhibit high concentrations of feldspars, which favour either high relief, arid or arctic climates with less chemical weathering at the source area. The presence of glauconite in sediments of the Main Karoo Basin attests to a marine continental shelf depositional environment. Sediments of the Main Karoo Basin have high contents of tadpole-shaped pyrite in coal and non-coal strata as compared to sediments of the Sub-Basins. The observed pyrite is ascribed to early diagenetic origin, and is closely related to the generation of acid mining drainage. The sediments have experienced an involved sequence of diagenetic alterations. The alterations considered to be typical for sandstones in the Main Karoo Basin are calcite cementation, feldspar dissolution, kaolinite infilling, pyrite grain coatings, albitization and pressure solution; whereas, quartz overgrowth and clay matrix filling are characteristics of sediments of Sub-Basins. The sequence and distribution of these alterations are related to the source mineral composition, depositional environment, stratigraphic relationships and burial history of the sediments. A direct link exists among the depositional environments, the mineral assemblages and the geochemical compositions of the lithologies. SiO2 is the dominant major oxide and is abundant in coals from coalfields located in the Sub-Basins. Si, Al, Fe, Ca, S, Mg, K and Na show strong association with their discrete minerals. The sandstones are substantially enriched in elements that are chemically immobile and associated with terrigenous influx, such as SiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2. The observed high contents of SiO2 are probably due to source rocks and silicification. SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 are related to clay and heavy minerals, with elevated Fe2O3 (Total) content in sediments of the Main Karoo Basin ascribed to sulphidization. Sediments from the Main Karoo Basin are enriched in both Na2O and K2O due to albitization and muscovitization. Substantial concentrations of Ba, Rb and Zr are in accordance to the high amount of phyllosilicates and heavy minerals. Muscovitization contributes to the correlation of Rb and Ba with K2O. The shales are substantially depleted in SiO2, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, TiO2 and Fe2O3 due to weathering and diagenetic alteration, but are enriched in Al2O3 and P2O5. The ABA test clearly indicates that sandstones from the Main Karoo Basin have a potential of generating AMD as they contain sufficient pyrite to generate acid, with the final pH values of the samples turning acidic upon complete oxidation of pyrite. On the contrary, sediments of SubBasins contain sufficient calcite that serves to limit the amount of acid generation. Both sandstone and coal from collieries representing the Main Karoo Basin are characterised by elevated contents of S percent in comparison to coal from collieries representing the Sub-Basins. In general, the quality of water is as a result of a combination of complex geochemical interactions that involves various ions from different sources. Water leaching test shows that the leachates have varied chemical compositions with pH values in the range of 4.5-9 for the sandstone, and 2– 8.9 for the coal leachates. Variations in the pH values are attributed to regional phenomena controlled by the mineralogical and hydrological environments. Furthermore, the variation in pH is ascribed to the presence of acid forming pyrite and acid neutralizing carbonate minerals that are highly reactive in the mining environment. Elements Na, Ca, Mg and K occur in non-compliant concentrations in both coal and non-coal leachates indicating their abundance in all of the lithologies. Na enrichment in the lithologies is associated with albite, clay minerals and Al-Ksulphate coatings. Elements Fe, Al, Cd and Pb are easily leached from the lithologies. According to the equilibrium model, gibbsite, cuprite, diaspore and boehmite are the supersaturated minerals in the lithologies. Influencing factors such as the mineralogical composition of rocks are reflected in the wide variation of pH, TDS, EC and the ion concentrations of the studied water samples. The pH of the studied areas is neutral to alkaline. High levels of TDS and EC are observed in the Brandspruit Colliery, which is due to dissolution of soluble salts from the rock sequence that the water passes through. The anion chemistry shows the dominance of SO4 2- in the surface and groundwater of Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries, whereas HCO3 - dominates in the Arnot Colliery. SO4 2- is ascribed to the oxidative weathering of pyrites. Cldominates in groundwater from the Arnot Colliery and the Waterberg Coalfield. The cation chemistry is dominated by Na+ in the surface and groundwater of the Brandspruit, Vaalkrantz and Elitheni Collieries. Mg2+ dominates in groundwater from the Arnot Colliery, while K+ dominates in the Waterberg Coalfield. Fe is highly enriched in water from the Brandspruit Colliery, and is linked to the oxidation of pyrite. Carbonates are the supersaturated minerals in the Sub-Basins whilst sulphates are supersaturated in the Main Karoo Basin. The research shows that variations in regional mineral distribution is a result of a palaeo-deposition environment that was of marine nature for the coal sequence in the Main Karoo Basin and of fresh water for the coal sequence in Sub-Basins. A direct link therefore exists between depositional environments, mineral assemblages and whole rock geochemistry. It can be concluded that AMD is directly linked to pyrite and other sulphides, the coal mines located in the Main Karoo Basin have the possibility to deteriorate surface- and ground-water quality and to generate AMD during the mining processes; coal miners need to seriously consider applying environmental protection measures when mining coal in the Main Karoo Basin. Whereas, coal mining in the Sub-Basins has low possibility of generating AMD and pollution. , Thesis (PhD) (Geology) -- University of Fort Hare, 2015
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2015
Evaluation of the effective micro-organisms (EM) on soil chemical properties and yield of selected vegetables in the Eastern Cape, South Africa
- Authors: Ncube, Lindani
- Date: 2008
- Subjects: Greenhouse management -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Butternut -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Microorganisms -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Sustainable agriculture -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Organic farming -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Tomatoes -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc Agric (Horticultural Science)
- Identifier: vital:11886 , http://hdl.handle.net/10353/86
- Description: Effective microorganisms (EM), a commercial concoction of microbes that includes yeasts, fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes, have been found to be effective in enhancing crop growth by a number of scholars. It is registered in South Africa, but it had not been thoroughly investigated. The present study investigated the effects of EM on growth, yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill), butternut (Curcurbita moschata) and Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris), along with selected soil properties. In field-grown tomato it was observed that the application of EM caused a significant increase in the number of fruits at seven weeks after transplanting. However, plants treated with EM alone, or EM in combination with other amendments, subsequently produced lower yields owing to an outbreak of early and late blights which affected them the most severely. Combined applications of EM with organic amendments improved plant N content and increased soil N content above initial levels. The application of compost resulted in soil N and P concentrations higher than those of the control presumably due to nutrients being slowly released from the compost material. In a follow up greenhouse trial EM application had a negative effect on tomato leaf dry matter yield, number of leaves, number of trusses, fruit yield and number of fruits. The negative effects of EM were ascribed to N immobilization by the EM that could have resulted in reduced N availability to plants. The lower number of fruits associated with EM application resulted in improved average fruit weight of tomatoes grown in the greenhouse, possibly as a result of more assimilates being partitioned to the few fruits EM application also had a negative effect on field grown butternut as reflected by lower total yield, lower marketable yield and lower first grade yield. The results were attributed to immobilization of N induced by application of EM, and to the inability of EM to control pumpkin fly that attacked very young fruit, resulting in their failure to develop or resulting in the down grading of mature fruits. The application of EM alone had a positive but non significant effect on the yields of both the first and second harvests of Swiss chard. However, when applied with compost or goat manure, a non significant negative effect on yield was observed. When applied with inorganic fertilizer, EM had no effect on yield but tended to increase the uptake of nitrogen by Swiss chard. Though goat manure had a narrower C: N ratio than compost, it did not result in greater EM effectiveness as had been hoped. However, goat manure had a more positive effect on soil properties than compost. It increased the N, P, and K contents of the soil and resulted in a narrower C: N ratio of the soil compared to compost. Generally, the results of the four trials conducted with three different crops indicated that EM had inconsistent effects on crop performance.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2008
- Authors: Ncube, Lindani
- Date: 2008
- Subjects: Greenhouse management -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Butternut -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Microorganisms -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Sustainable agriculture -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Organic farming -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape , Tomatoes -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc Agric (Horticultural Science)
- Identifier: vital:11886 , http://hdl.handle.net/10353/86
- Description: Effective microorganisms (EM), a commercial concoction of microbes that includes yeasts, fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes, have been found to be effective in enhancing crop growth by a number of scholars. It is registered in South Africa, but it had not been thoroughly investigated. The present study investigated the effects of EM on growth, yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill), butternut (Curcurbita moschata) and Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris), along with selected soil properties. In field-grown tomato it was observed that the application of EM caused a significant increase in the number of fruits at seven weeks after transplanting. However, plants treated with EM alone, or EM in combination with other amendments, subsequently produced lower yields owing to an outbreak of early and late blights which affected them the most severely. Combined applications of EM with organic amendments improved plant N content and increased soil N content above initial levels. The application of compost resulted in soil N and P concentrations higher than those of the control presumably due to nutrients being slowly released from the compost material. In a follow up greenhouse trial EM application had a negative effect on tomato leaf dry matter yield, number of leaves, number of trusses, fruit yield and number of fruits. The negative effects of EM were ascribed to N immobilization by the EM that could have resulted in reduced N availability to plants. The lower number of fruits associated with EM application resulted in improved average fruit weight of tomatoes grown in the greenhouse, possibly as a result of more assimilates being partitioned to the few fruits EM application also had a negative effect on field grown butternut as reflected by lower total yield, lower marketable yield and lower first grade yield. The results were attributed to immobilization of N induced by application of EM, and to the inability of EM to control pumpkin fly that attacked very young fruit, resulting in their failure to develop or resulting in the down grading of mature fruits. The application of EM alone had a positive but non significant effect on the yields of both the first and second harvests of Swiss chard. However, when applied with compost or goat manure, a non significant negative effect on yield was observed. When applied with inorganic fertilizer, EM had no effect on yield but tended to increase the uptake of nitrogen by Swiss chard. Though goat manure had a narrower C: N ratio than compost, it did not result in greater EM effectiveness as had been hoped. However, goat manure had a more positive effect on soil properties than compost. It increased the N, P, and K contents of the soil and resulted in a narrower C: N ratio of the soil compared to compost. Generally, the results of the four trials conducted with three different crops indicated that EM had inconsistent effects on crop performance.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2008
- «
- ‹
- 1
- ›
- »