Livelihood and coping strategy changes along rural-urban continua with an emphasis on natural resources
- Authors: Evans, Michelle Leigh
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Natural resources -- South Africa -- Queenstown Natural resources -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Rural-urban divide -- South Africa -- Queenstown Rural-urban divide -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Income -- South Africa -- Queenstown Income -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Women heads of households -- South Africa -- Queenstown Women heads of households -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Adjustment (Psychology)
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4731 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001958
- Description: Rapid urbanisation is one of the greatest challenges facing both developed and developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has historically been one of the least developed and least urbanised areas of the world. However, urbanisation is now occurring much more rapidly in countries that have lower levels of per capita income. Therefore, in the coming decades, urban population growth is expected to be more widespread in the developing countries of the world. Most research on the role of natural resources focuses on rural communities and little is known about the contribution these resources make along the rural-urban continuum in small and medium sized towns as well as the contribution to total livelihoods. This is because researchers and policy makers have often treated rural and urban areas and their residents as distinct entities that should be studied in isolation. This, however, is not a true reflection of household livelihoods which often include both rural and urban elements. This study therefore analysed the impact of urbanisation on livelihoods along a rural-urban continuum with an emphasis on natural resources in South Africa. The main characteristics as well as the livelihood portfolios of respondent households were investigated. Secondly, the coping strategies used by households along the rural-urban continuum were explored, and disaggregated according to the gender of the household head. Data were collected along the rural-urban continuum of two small towns, namely Queenstown, located in the Eastern Cape province and Phalaborwa, located in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Sampling covered the town, peri-urban areas, townships and adjacent rural households. A standardised survey instrument was used to capture household details and livelihood activities and a total of 272 interviews were conducted. The rural areas near both towns were poorer than the township and urban areas with regards to assets, access to employment and annual household income across all cash and non-cash income streams. The engagement in land-based activities increased towards the rural areas. The use of natural resources, as well as the number of resources collected, increased along the continuum towards the rural areas, with 12.0% to 49.0% of urban households, 30.0% to 88.0% of township households and between 80.0% and 100.0% of rural households engaging in the use and collection of natural resources. While natural resource use and collection was lowest in the urban areas, a significant amount of resources were still collected by urban households. Income portfolios for all households were calculated to determine the direct-use value of wild natural capital to livelihoods as well as the contribution made from land (arable and livestock farming), welfare grants and employment. Employment, barring one exception in the rural areas of Phalaborwa, was the largest contributor in terms of mean annual income along the continuum in both towns, followed by grants and pensions in the township and rural areas. In Phalaborwa, however, wild natural capital was found to be the largest contributor to local livelihoods, contributing 48.0% of the mean annual income. Household portfolios become more diversified in the poorer, rural areas as well as in households headed by females. The main shocks reported along the continuum in both Queenstown and Phalaborwa were death in the family, followed by a loss of employment, which was concentrated in male-headed households. Coping strategies resulting in the attainment of cash income fast, such as borrowing money from friends/relatives and cashing in retirements savings were favoured over longer term strategies such as finding local wage employment. Female-headed households were found to rely significantly on social groups or clubs as a coping strategy, highlighting the importance of social capital and social relations in female-headed households
- Full Text:
- Authors: Evans, Michelle Leigh
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Natural resources -- South Africa -- Queenstown Natural resources -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Rural-urban divide -- South Africa -- Queenstown Rural-urban divide -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Income -- South Africa -- Queenstown Income -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Women heads of households -- South Africa -- Queenstown Women heads of households -- South Africa -- Phalaborwa Adjustment (Psychology)
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4731 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001958
- Description: Rapid urbanisation is one of the greatest challenges facing both developed and developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has historically been one of the least developed and least urbanised areas of the world. However, urbanisation is now occurring much more rapidly in countries that have lower levels of per capita income. Therefore, in the coming decades, urban population growth is expected to be more widespread in the developing countries of the world. Most research on the role of natural resources focuses on rural communities and little is known about the contribution these resources make along the rural-urban continuum in small and medium sized towns as well as the contribution to total livelihoods. This is because researchers and policy makers have often treated rural and urban areas and their residents as distinct entities that should be studied in isolation. This, however, is not a true reflection of household livelihoods which often include both rural and urban elements. This study therefore analysed the impact of urbanisation on livelihoods along a rural-urban continuum with an emphasis on natural resources in South Africa. The main characteristics as well as the livelihood portfolios of respondent households were investigated. Secondly, the coping strategies used by households along the rural-urban continuum were explored, and disaggregated according to the gender of the household head. Data were collected along the rural-urban continuum of two small towns, namely Queenstown, located in the Eastern Cape province and Phalaborwa, located in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Sampling covered the town, peri-urban areas, townships and adjacent rural households. A standardised survey instrument was used to capture household details and livelihood activities and a total of 272 interviews were conducted. The rural areas near both towns were poorer than the township and urban areas with regards to assets, access to employment and annual household income across all cash and non-cash income streams. The engagement in land-based activities increased towards the rural areas. The use of natural resources, as well as the number of resources collected, increased along the continuum towards the rural areas, with 12.0% to 49.0% of urban households, 30.0% to 88.0% of township households and between 80.0% and 100.0% of rural households engaging in the use and collection of natural resources. While natural resource use and collection was lowest in the urban areas, a significant amount of resources were still collected by urban households. Income portfolios for all households were calculated to determine the direct-use value of wild natural capital to livelihoods as well as the contribution made from land (arable and livestock farming), welfare grants and employment. Employment, barring one exception in the rural areas of Phalaborwa, was the largest contributor in terms of mean annual income along the continuum in both towns, followed by grants and pensions in the township and rural areas. In Phalaborwa, however, wild natural capital was found to be the largest contributor to local livelihoods, contributing 48.0% of the mean annual income. Household portfolios become more diversified in the poorer, rural areas as well as in households headed by females. The main shocks reported along the continuum in both Queenstown and Phalaborwa were death in the family, followed by a loss of employment, which was concentrated in male-headed households. Coping strategies resulting in the attainment of cash income fast, such as borrowing money from friends/relatives and cashing in retirements savings were favoured over longer term strategies such as finding local wage employment. Female-headed households were found to rely significantly on social groups or clubs as a coping strategy, highlighting the importance of social capital and social relations in female-headed households
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Livelihoods and natural resource use along the rural-urban continuum
- Authors: Ward, Catherine Dale
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Natural resources -- South Africa , Human ecology -- South Africa , Cities and towns -- Growth -- South Africa , Natural resources -- Management -- South Africa , Rural poor -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Sustainable development -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4727 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001669 , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human ecology -- South Africa , Cities and towns -- Growth -- South Africa , Natural resources -- Management -- South Africa , Rural poor -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Sustainable development -- South Africa
- Description: Over the last century, developing countries have undergone rapid urbanisation resulting in marked social, economic and environmental changes. Africa is the least urbanised continent in the world but trends indicate that it is also the most rapidly urbanising region, accompanied by rising urban poverty. Urbanisation processes are often most pronounced in smaller urban centres since they experience the most severe pressures of population growth. Little is known about the role natural resources play along the rural-urban continuum and even less is known about the contribution of these resources within an urban context, particularly in small urban centres. In many sub-Saharan African cities, urban agriculture (the informal production of food in urban areas) has been used as a strategy to cope with increasing poverty levels but its role remains widely debated and uncertain. This thesis seeks to analyse the impacts of urbanisation on livelihoods and natural resource use, including home gardening and the collection of wild resources, in two South African towns and data was collected along the rural-urban continuum in Queenstown (Eastern Cape province) and Phalaborwa (Limpopo Province). Practices and contributions associated with agriculture and wild resource use were found to be significantly higher in Phalaborwa and this could be attributed to favourable environmental conditions and accessibility to wild resources due to the surrounding Mopani Bushveld. Rural households in Queenstown and Phalaborwa were more reliant on natural resources than their urban counterparts, but still diverse and incorporated a number of land-based and cash income generating strategies. Urban households tended to rely on one primary cash income strategy such as wage employment or state grants. However, natural resources did appear to play a subtle role in urban settings and particularly in the townships, where exclusion of natural resource contributions saw poverty levels increase up to 5%. Home gardening was practised by a wide range of people and not restricted to any one income group and, not surprisingly, wealthy cultivators who had access to resources such as land, water and fertilizer enjoyed increased benefits such as high produce yields. The results obtained suggest that rural-urban dynamics are complex and natural resource use in local livelihoods is contextualised within environmental settings, social preferences and historical contexts. Increasing pressures from the influx of people into small urban centres calls for a better understanding to how these processes are affecting livelihoods and natural resources to ensure sustainable management in the future.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Ward, Catherine Dale
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Natural resources -- South Africa , Human ecology -- South Africa , Cities and towns -- Growth -- South Africa , Natural resources -- Management -- South Africa , Rural poor -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Sustainable development -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4727 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001669 , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human ecology -- South Africa , Cities and towns -- Growth -- South Africa , Natural resources -- Management -- South Africa , Rural poor -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Sustainable development -- South Africa
- Description: Over the last century, developing countries have undergone rapid urbanisation resulting in marked social, economic and environmental changes. Africa is the least urbanised continent in the world but trends indicate that it is also the most rapidly urbanising region, accompanied by rising urban poverty. Urbanisation processes are often most pronounced in smaller urban centres since they experience the most severe pressures of population growth. Little is known about the role natural resources play along the rural-urban continuum and even less is known about the contribution of these resources within an urban context, particularly in small urban centres. In many sub-Saharan African cities, urban agriculture (the informal production of food in urban areas) has been used as a strategy to cope with increasing poverty levels but its role remains widely debated and uncertain. This thesis seeks to analyse the impacts of urbanisation on livelihoods and natural resource use, including home gardening and the collection of wild resources, in two South African towns and data was collected along the rural-urban continuum in Queenstown (Eastern Cape province) and Phalaborwa (Limpopo Province). Practices and contributions associated with agriculture and wild resource use were found to be significantly higher in Phalaborwa and this could be attributed to favourable environmental conditions and accessibility to wild resources due to the surrounding Mopani Bushveld. Rural households in Queenstown and Phalaborwa were more reliant on natural resources than their urban counterparts, but still diverse and incorporated a number of land-based and cash income generating strategies. Urban households tended to rely on one primary cash income strategy such as wage employment or state grants. However, natural resources did appear to play a subtle role in urban settings and particularly in the townships, where exclusion of natural resource contributions saw poverty levels increase up to 5%. Home gardening was practised by a wide range of people and not restricted to any one income group and, not surprisingly, wealthy cultivators who had access to resources such as land, water and fertilizer enjoyed increased benefits such as high produce yields. The results obtained suggest that rural-urban dynamics are complex and natural resource use in local livelihoods is contextualised within environmental settings, social preferences and historical contexts. Increasing pressures from the influx of people into small urban centres calls for a better understanding to how these processes are affecting livelihoods and natural resources to ensure sustainable management in the future.
- Full Text:
The contribution of trees to local livelihoods in urban areas
- Authors: Kaoma, Humphrey
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Trees in cities - -South Africa , Urban ecology (Sociology) -- South Africa , Poverty -- South Africa , Urban forestry -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human-plant relationships -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4734 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1003911 , Trees in cities - -South Africa , Urban ecology (Sociology) -- South Africa , Poverty -- South Africa , Urban forestry -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human-plant relationships -- South Africa
- Description: Trees in natural forests are widely known for their essential contribution to rural livelihoods in developing countries, providing both consumptive and non-consumptive products to rural inhabitants. These benefits are also obtained from trees in urban forests and used by urban households. In the past decades, the role of urban trees to urban livelihoods, municipalities, local and global environment has often been overlooked by researchers and development agencies, and hence are poorly documented, especially in Africa. In South Africa, the increase in urbanisation and urban poverty means many urban residents are expected to be dependent on trees and tree products from homesteads, neighbourhoods and edges of towns. There is however a paucity of literature on the potential of trees in sustaining livelihoods and poverty alleviation in urban areas. This study determined the magnitude and nature of the direct contribution of trees and tree products to local livelihoods in different urban residential areas (informal, Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), and township) in three South African towns (Tzaneen, Bela Bela and Zeerust) which cover a rainfall gradient from relatively higher (775 mm p.a.) to low (575 mm p.a.). The results showed that most (90%) households had an interest in planting and managing trees on homesteads, given the high proportion (71%) of residents who had planted trees on their homesteads. The abundance of trees followed the moisture gradient, with Tzaneen having a larger share (46.4%) of trees, followed by Bela Bela (27.5%) and Zeerust (26.1%). Larger plots in the informal residential area accounted for the larger proportion (42.8%) of trees on homesteads, followed by the township (32.9%) and RDP households being the least because they were recently established. Tree density was also higher in the high rainfall town but the pattern did not follow the moisture gradient between Bela Bela and Zeerust due to little rainfall difference. However, tree density across residential areas was similar to the proportion of trees on homesteads in residential areas. The most common tree species were alien, and mainly exotic fruit trees made up two-thirds of the trees encountered. Most households collected various products from urban trees, particularly fuelwood, from edges of towns. This was especially by households with lower cash income. However, fruits were collected from homesteads regardless of the wealth status. Tree products had a significant contribution to the total annual household income, with fuelwood alone contributing up to R5 663 per household per annum, equivalent to two-three month household cash income. Tree products added 20% to total household income, which represents the amount of money households save by collecting tree products for free. Therefore, trees within and around urban areas contribute significantly to livelihoods and reduce poverty in urban areas. There is need therefore to encourage urban residents to plant trees on homesteads and policy makers to come up with policies that promote sustainable harvesting of tree products from areas surrounding urban areas.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Kaoma, Humphrey
- Date: 2013
- Subjects: Trees in cities - -South Africa , Urban ecology (Sociology) -- South Africa , Poverty -- South Africa , Urban forestry -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human-plant relationships -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4734 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1003911 , Trees in cities - -South Africa , Urban ecology (Sociology) -- South Africa , Poverty -- South Africa , Urban forestry -- South Africa , Urban poor -- South Africa , Natural resources -- South Africa , Human-plant relationships -- South Africa
- Description: Trees in natural forests are widely known for their essential contribution to rural livelihoods in developing countries, providing both consumptive and non-consumptive products to rural inhabitants. These benefits are also obtained from trees in urban forests and used by urban households. In the past decades, the role of urban trees to urban livelihoods, municipalities, local and global environment has often been overlooked by researchers and development agencies, and hence are poorly documented, especially in Africa. In South Africa, the increase in urbanisation and urban poverty means many urban residents are expected to be dependent on trees and tree products from homesteads, neighbourhoods and edges of towns. There is however a paucity of literature on the potential of trees in sustaining livelihoods and poverty alleviation in urban areas. This study determined the magnitude and nature of the direct contribution of trees and tree products to local livelihoods in different urban residential areas (informal, Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), and township) in three South African towns (Tzaneen, Bela Bela and Zeerust) which cover a rainfall gradient from relatively higher (775 mm p.a.) to low (575 mm p.a.). The results showed that most (90%) households had an interest in planting and managing trees on homesteads, given the high proportion (71%) of residents who had planted trees on their homesteads. The abundance of trees followed the moisture gradient, with Tzaneen having a larger share (46.4%) of trees, followed by Bela Bela (27.5%) and Zeerust (26.1%). Larger plots in the informal residential area accounted for the larger proportion (42.8%) of trees on homesteads, followed by the township (32.9%) and RDP households being the least because they were recently established. Tree density was also higher in the high rainfall town but the pattern did not follow the moisture gradient between Bela Bela and Zeerust due to little rainfall difference. However, tree density across residential areas was similar to the proportion of trees on homesteads in residential areas. The most common tree species were alien, and mainly exotic fruit trees made up two-thirds of the trees encountered. Most households collected various products from urban trees, particularly fuelwood, from edges of towns. This was especially by households with lower cash income. However, fruits were collected from homesteads regardless of the wealth status. Tree products had a significant contribution to the total annual household income, with fuelwood alone contributing up to R5 663 per household per annum, equivalent to two-three month household cash income. Tree products added 20% to total household income, which represents the amount of money households save by collecting tree products for free. Therefore, trees within and around urban areas contribute significantly to livelihoods and reduce poverty in urban areas. There is need therefore to encourage urban residents to plant trees on homesteads and policy makers to come up with policies that promote sustainable harvesting of tree products from areas surrounding urban areas.
- Full Text:
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