Managing the invasive aquatic plant Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G. Sm(Alismataceae): problems and prospects
- Ndlovu, Mpilonhle Sinothando
- Authors: Ndlovu, Mpilonhle Sinothando
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Sagittaria latifolia -- Biological control -- South Africa , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Listronotus , Insects as biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167121 , vital:41439
- Description: Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G.Sm. (Alismataceae), commonly known as Delta arrowhead, is an invasive aquatic macrophyte native to southern United States of America (USA) that has become a serious weed in freshwater systems in South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and recently China. In South Africa, the plant was first detected in Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province in 2008, and due to its known impact in other countries, it was listed as a Category 1a invader species under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 2004 (NEM: BA). This listing required mechanical and chemical control methods to be implemented by the South African National Biodiversity Institute’s (SANBI), Invasive Species Programme (ISP), with the aim of eradicating the weed. Despite the eradication efforts, by 2016, the weed was recognized as one of the country’s top 10 worst and fastest spreading invasive alien plants. Since its introduction in 2008, the plant has spread both within and between sites in South Africa, increasing from one site in 2008 to 72 sites by 2019. Once introduced into lotic systems, the plant spread rapidly downstream, in some cases up to 120km within six years, with an average of 10 km per year. Extirpation over the last ten years was only possible at a limited number of sites. Under the current management approach, the invasion is foreseen to spread to new sites within a 5 km radius of the current populations. Due to the failure of conventional control mechanisms, biological control is currently being considered as a potential control option. Four potential biological control agents are under investigation, but none have been released. Amongst them is the fruit and flower feeding weevil Listronotus appendiculatus Bohm. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) which showed most potential as a suitable biological control agent. This study demonstrated that L. appendiculatus herbivory negatively influenced the overall fitness of S. platyphylla by reducing the plant’s growth rate and above ground biomass. Listronotus appendiculatus herbivory also reduced the plant’s size and the potential to kill adult plants. Most importantly, L. appendiculatus larval feeding damage significantly reduce viable-germinating seeds, the weed’s primary dispersal mechanism. Therefore, a biological control programme is advised to be integrated within the current management plan.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Ndlovu, Mpilonhle Sinothando
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Sagittaria latifolia -- Biological control -- South Africa , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Listronotus , Insects as biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167121 , vital:41439
- Description: Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G.Sm. (Alismataceae), commonly known as Delta arrowhead, is an invasive aquatic macrophyte native to southern United States of America (USA) that has become a serious weed in freshwater systems in South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and recently China. In South Africa, the plant was first detected in Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province in 2008, and due to its known impact in other countries, it was listed as a Category 1a invader species under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 2004 (NEM: BA). This listing required mechanical and chemical control methods to be implemented by the South African National Biodiversity Institute’s (SANBI), Invasive Species Programme (ISP), with the aim of eradicating the weed. Despite the eradication efforts, by 2016, the weed was recognized as one of the country’s top 10 worst and fastest spreading invasive alien plants. Since its introduction in 2008, the plant has spread both within and between sites in South Africa, increasing from one site in 2008 to 72 sites by 2019. Once introduced into lotic systems, the plant spread rapidly downstream, in some cases up to 120km within six years, with an average of 10 km per year. Extirpation over the last ten years was only possible at a limited number of sites. Under the current management approach, the invasion is foreseen to spread to new sites within a 5 km radius of the current populations. Due to the failure of conventional control mechanisms, biological control is currently being considered as a potential control option. Four potential biological control agents are under investigation, but none have been released. Amongst them is the fruit and flower feeding weevil Listronotus appendiculatus Bohm. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) which showed most potential as a suitable biological control agent. This study demonstrated that L. appendiculatus herbivory negatively influenced the overall fitness of S. platyphylla by reducing the plant’s growth rate and above ground biomass. Listronotus appendiculatus herbivory also reduced the plant’s size and the potential to kill adult plants. Most importantly, L. appendiculatus larval feeding damage significantly reduce viable-germinating seeds, the weed’s primary dispersal mechanism. Therefore, a biological control programme is advised to be integrated within the current management plan.
- Full Text:
Quantifying ecosystem restoration recovery and restoration practice following the biological control of invasive alien macrophytes in Southern Africa
- Authors: Motitsoe, Samuel Nkopane
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Salvinia molesta , Ceratophyllum demersum , Nymphaea mexicana , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Restoration monitoring (Ecology) -- South Africa , Biolotical invasions -- Environmental aspects
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167519 , vital:41488
- Description: Invasive alien aquatic plants (IAAP) species are known to have deleterious effects on the freshwater ecosystems they invade. This includes both socio-economic and ecologically important ecosystem goods and services. Thus, IAAP species are declared a serious threat, second only to habitat modification for causing a loss of aquatic biodiversity. Three control methods have been widely applied to control IAAP species invasion globally; mechanical, chemical and biological control. Both mechanical and chemical control methods are considered short-term and expensive, whereas biological control methods are regarded an effective and long-term solution for IAAP species control at the landscape level. But, little is known of the ecological recovery following the biological control of IAAP species, with mechanical control known to have had mixed success and chemical control to have non-targeted effects on aquatic ecosystems, causing harm to wildlife and human well-being. Biological control practitioners measure the success of biological control based on: (1) the biological control agents’ establishment and the negative impacts they impose on the targeted weed; and (2) the weeds biomass reduction and an increase in native macrophytes species. Arguably, measures of biological control success have been subjective and variable across the globe. Although some field studies have demonstrated biological control success to have positive socio-economic returns, there is little literature on ecological benefits. Furthermore, there is limited understanding on ecosystem recovery and possible restoration efforts following the biological control IAAP species, as compared to alien weeds in terrestrial and riparian ecosystems. Thus, this thesis aimed to quantify the ecological recovery i.e. aquatic biodiversity, ecosystem processes and trophic interactions following the management of Salvinia molesta in freshwater ecosystems. The research employed a suite of Before-After Control-Impact mesocosm and field studies to investigate the response of aquatic microalgae, macroinvertebrates and their interactions (food web structure and function) during S. molesta infestation and after mechanical and biological control. The mesocosm experiment (Before invasion, During invasion & After control) showed that both aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrate diversity indices were reliable biological indicators of S. molesta ecological impacts and recovery following control. The restored treatment (100% S. molesta cover + biological control agents), demonstrated complete aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrate recovery following biological control, similar to the control treatment (open water), where the degraded/impacted treatment (100% S. molesta cover with no biological control agents) showed a drastic decline in aquatic biodiversity and a complete shift in aquatic biota assemblage structure. Thus, the biological control effort by Cyrtobagous salviniae, the biological control agent for S. molesta, assisted in the recovery of aquatic biota following successful biological control. The field study (four field sites, two sites controlled mechanically and two biologically) investigated water quality, aquatic biodiversity and community trophic interactions (aquatic food web) “before and after” S. molesta control. The study showed a drastic decline in aquatic biodiversity (with three sites showing no record of aquatic macroinvertebrates, thus no biotic interactions during infestation) and poor water quality due to the shade-effect (light barrier due to floating S. molesta mats on the water surface) during the “before” S. molesta control phase. However, following both mechanical and biological control (“after” S. molesta control phase), there was a significant shift in abiotic and biotic ecosystem characteristics as compared to the “before” S. molesta control phase. Thus, rapid ecosystem recovery was apparent as a result of aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrates recolonisation. Sites showed a normal functioning ecosystem where improved water quality, increased biodiversity, productivity and trophic interactions, was indicative of the return of biologically and functionally important species which were lost during the “before” S. molesta phase. Although the clear water state showed positive outcomes at Westlake River, these were short lived when the system was dominated by a cosmopolitan submerged Ceratophyllum demersum, and later replaced by a floating-leaved emergent IAAP Nymphaea mexicana. Each state was responsible for a significant shift in both biotic and abiotic characteristics, affirming macrophyte abilities to influence aquatic environments structure and functions. Furthermore, this event showed a clear example of a secondary invasion. Thus, a holistic IAAP species management strategy is necessary to restore previously invaded ecosystems and prevent subsequent secondary invasion and ecosystem degradation. In conclusion, the S. molesta shade-effect like any other free-floating IAAP species, was identified as the main degrading factor and responsible for water quality reduction, loss of aquatic diversity and shift in aquatic biota assemblage structure. Following S. molesta removal (or shade-effect elimination), there was a positive response to aquatic ecosystem species abundance, richness, diversity and community structure. Therefore, in combination, aquatic biota recolonisation rate and increases in biological and functional diversity were instrumental in the recovery of ecosystem structure and functions, following the control of S. molesta. Echoing existing literature, this thesis recommends: (1) IAAP species management programmes (mechanical and/or biological control) should not only aim to control the weed but also focus on ecosystems recovery and possible restoration goals; (2) biological control should be used where appropriate to combat free-floating IAAP species in freshwater ecosystems, followed by active introduction of native macrophyte propagules since they are limited by anthropogenic activities; and (3) more freshwater case studies are needed to add to our understanding of IAAP species management and restoration effort incorporating long-term monitoring.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Motitsoe, Samuel Nkopane
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Salvinia molesta , Ceratophyllum demersum , Nymphaea mexicana , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Restoration monitoring (Ecology) -- South Africa , Biolotical invasions -- Environmental aspects
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Doctoral , PhD
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167519 , vital:41488
- Description: Invasive alien aquatic plants (IAAP) species are known to have deleterious effects on the freshwater ecosystems they invade. This includes both socio-economic and ecologically important ecosystem goods and services. Thus, IAAP species are declared a serious threat, second only to habitat modification for causing a loss of aquatic biodiversity. Three control methods have been widely applied to control IAAP species invasion globally; mechanical, chemical and biological control. Both mechanical and chemical control methods are considered short-term and expensive, whereas biological control methods are regarded an effective and long-term solution for IAAP species control at the landscape level. But, little is known of the ecological recovery following the biological control of IAAP species, with mechanical control known to have had mixed success and chemical control to have non-targeted effects on aquatic ecosystems, causing harm to wildlife and human well-being. Biological control practitioners measure the success of biological control based on: (1) the biological control agents’ establishment and the negative impacts they impose on the targeted weed; and (2) the weeds biomass reduction and an increase in native macrophytes species. Arguably, measures of biological control success have been subjective and variable across the globe. Although some field studies have demonstrated biological control success to have positive socio-economic returns, there is little literature on ecological benefits. Furthermore, there is limited understanding on ecosystem recovery and possible restoration efforts following the biological control IAAP species, as compared to alien weeds in terrestrial and riparian ecosystems. Thus, this thesis aimed to quantify the ecological recovery i.e. aquatic biodiversity, ecosystem processes and trophic interactions following the management of Salvinia molesta in freshwater ecosystems. The research employed a suite of Before-After Control-Impact mesocosm and field studies to investigate the response of aquatic microalgae, macroinvertebrates and their interactions (food web structure and function) during S. molesta infestation and after mechanical and biological control. The mesocosm experiment (Before invasion, During invasion & After control) showed that both aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrate diversity indices were reliable biological indicators of S. molesta ecological impacts and recovery following control. The restored treatment (100% S. molesta cover + biological control agents), demonstrated complete aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrate recovery following biological control, similar to the control treatment (open water), where the degraded/impacted treatment (100% S. molesta cover with no biological control agents) showed a drastic decline in aquatic biodiversity and a complete shift in aquatic biota assemblage structure. Thus, the biological control effort by Cyrtobagous salviniae, the biological control agent for S. molesta, assisted in the recovery of aquatic biota following successful biological control. The field study (four field sites, two sites controlled mechanically and two biologically) investigated water quality, aquatic biodiversity and community trophic interactions (aquatic food web) “before and after” S. molesta control. The study showed a drastic decline in aquatic biodiversity (with three sites showing no record of aquatic macroinvertebrates, thus no biotic interactions during infestation) and poor water quality due to the shade-effect (light barrier due to floating S. molesta mats on the water surface) during the “before” S. molesta control phase. However, following both mechanical and biological control (“after” S. molesta control phase), there was a significant shift in abiotic and biotic ecosystem characteristics as compared to the “before” S. molesta control phase. Thus, rapid ecosystem recovery was apparent as a result of aquatic microalgae and macroinvertebrates recolonisation. Sites showed a normal functioning ecosystem where improved water quality, increased biodiversity, productivity and trophic interactions, was indicative of the return of biologically and functionally important species which were lost during the “before” S. molesta phase. Although the clear water state showed positive outcomes at Westlake River, these were short lived when the system was dominated by a cosmopolitan submerged Ceratophyllum demersum, and later replaced by a floating-leaved emergent IAAP Nymphaea mexicana. Each state was responsible for a significant shift in both biotic and abiotic characteristics, affirming macrophyte abilities to influence aquatic environments structure and functions. Furthermore, this event showed a clear example of a secondary invasion. Thus, a holistic IAAP species management strategy is necessary to restore previously invaded ecosystems and prevent subsequent secondary invasion and ecosystem degradation. In conclusion, the S. molesta shade-effect like any other free-floating IAAP species, was identified as the main degrading factor and responsible for water quality reduction, loss of aquatic diversity and shift in aquatic biota assemblage structure. Following S. molesta removal (or shade-effect elimination), there was a positive response to aquatic ecosystem species abundance, richness, diversity and community structure. Therefore, in combination, aquatic biota recolonisation rate and increases in biological and functional diversity were instrumental in the recovery of ecosystem structure and functions, following the control of S. molesta. Echoing existing literature, this thesis recommends: (1) IAAP species management programmes (mechanical and/or biological control) should not only aim to control the weed but also focus on ecosystems recovery and possible restoration goals; (2) biological control should be used where appropriate to combat free-floating IAAP species in freshwater ecosystems, followed by active introduction of native macrophyte propagules since they are limited by anthropogenic activities; and (3) more freshwater case studies are needed to add to our understanding of IAAP species management and restoration effort incorporating long-term monitoring.
- Full Text:
The effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on the biological control of invasive aquatic weeds in South Africa
- Authors: Baso, Nompumelelo Catherine
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Plants -- Effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide on , Atmospheric carbon dioxide -- Environmental aspects
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/140772 , vital:37917
- Description: There has been a rapid increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration, from pre-industrial values of 280 ppm to more than 400 ppm currently, and this is expected to more than double by the end of the 21st century. Studies have shown that plants grown above 600 ppm tend to have an increased growth rate and invest more in carbon-based defences. This has important implications for the management of invasive alien plants, especially for the field of biological control which is mostly dependent on herbivorous insects. This is because insects reared on such plants have been shown to have reduced overall fitness. Nevertheless, most of the studies on potential changes in plant-insect interactions under elevated CO2 are based on agricultural systems, with only a limited number of these types of studies conducted on alien invasive weeds. However, climate change and invasive species are two of the most prevalent features of global environmental change. Therefore, this also warrants active research and experimental studies to better understand how these systems will be affected by future climates. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on the biological control of four invasive aquatic weeds (Azolla filiculoides, Salvinia molesta, Pistia stratiotes, and Myriophyllum aquaticum). These species are a threat to natural resources in South Africa but are currently under successful control by their biological control agents (Stenopelmus rufinasus, Cyrtobagous salviniae, Neohydronomus affinis, and Lysathia n. sp.). To achieve this, the selected plant species were grown in a three-factor experimental design in winter (CO2 X nutrients X herbivory), and another two-factorial design in summer (CO2 X herbivory). Atmospheric CO2 concentrations were set at ambient (400 ppm) or elevated (800 ppm), as per the predictions of the IPCC. As per my hypothesis, the results suggest that these species will become more challenging in future due to increased biomass production, asexual reproduction and a higher C: N ratio which is evident under high CO2 concentrations. Although the biological control agents were in some instances able to reduce this CO2 fertilisation effect, their efficacy was significantly reduced compared with the levels of control observed at ambient CO2. These results suggest that additional biological control agents and other management methods may be needed for continued control of these invasive macrophytes, both in South Africa and further afield where they are problematic.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Baso, Nompumelelo Catherine
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Plants -- Effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide on , Atmospheric carbon dioxide -- Environmental aspects
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/140772 , vital:37917
- Description: There has been a rapid increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration, from pre-industrial values of 280 ppm to more than 400 ppm currently, and this is expected to more than double by the end of the 21st century. Studies have shown that plants grown above 600 ppm tend to have an increased growth rate and invest more in carbon-based defences. This has important implications for the management of invasive alien plants, especially for the field of biological control which is mostly dependent on herbivorous insects. This is because insects reared on such plants have been shown to have reduced overall fitness. Nevertheless, most of the studies on potential changes in plant-insect interactions under elevated CO2 are based on agricultural systems, with only a limited number of these types of studies conducted on alien invasive weeds. However, climate change and invasive species are two of the most prevalent features of global environmental change. Therefore, this also warrants active research and experimental studies to better understand how these systems will be affected by future climates. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on the biological control of four invasive aquatic weeds (Azolla filiculoides, Salvinia molesta, Pistia stratiotes, and Myriophyllum aquaticum). These species are a threat to natural resources in South Africa but are currently under successful control by their biological control agents (Stenopelmus rufinasus, Cyrtobagous salviniae, Neohydronomus affinis, and Lysathia n. sp.). To achieve this, the selected plant species were grown in a three-factor experimental design in winter (CO2 X nutrients X herbivory), and another two-factorial design in summer (CO2 X herbivory). Atmospheric CO2 concentrations were set at ambient (400 ppm) or elevated (800 ppm), as per the predictions of the IPCC. As per my hypothesis, the results suggest that these species will become more challenging in future due to increased biomass production, asexual reproduction and a higher C: N ratio which is evident under high CO2 concentrations. Although the biological control agents were in some instances able to reduce this CO2 fertilisation effect, their efficacy was significantly reduced compared with the levels of control observed at ambient CO2. These results suggest that additional biological control agents and other management methods may be needed for continued control of these invasive macrophytes, both in South Africa and further afield where they are problematic.
- Full Text:
Post-release evaluation of Megamelus scutellaris Berg. (hemiptera: delphacidae): a biological control agent of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub (Pontederiaceae) in South Africa
- Authors: Miller, Benjamin Erich
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Megamelus scutellaris Berg. , Delphacidae , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/92330 , vital:30710
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub. (Pontederiaceae) is a free-floating aquatic macrophyte from South America that was introduced to South Africa in the 1900s for its attractive ornamental flowers. The plant was classified as a serious invader in the country in the 1970s, eventually becoming the worst invasive aquatic plant in South Africa. Biological control is widely regarded as the most effective method of managing water hyacinth, as it is ecologically safe, cost-effective, and self-sustaining. To date, nine biological control agents have been released in South Africa against water hyacinth, including eight arthropods and a pathogen. Due to the cumulative effects of highly eutrophic waterbodies, which mitigate the damage caused by biological control, and the cold winters which inhibit the rate of biological control agent population build up, South Africa currently has more biological control agents released on water hyacinth than anywhere else in the world. The need for a cold-tolerant agent that can reproduce and develop quickly, while still being damaging to water hyacinth in eutrophic systems, led to the introduction of the most recently released water hyacinth biological control agent, the planthopper Megamelus scutellaris Berg (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), which was initially collected from Argentina. This thesis formed the first post-release evaluation of M. scutellaris since its release in South Africa in 2013. It included a greenhouse experiment to measure the agent’s feeding damage in relation to different nutrient levels and stocking rates, as well as a field component to evaluate both the post-winter recovery of M. scutellaris, and a nationwide survey to measure the establishment of the agent around the country in relation to climate, water quality, and plant health. In the greenhouse experiment, the feeding damage was quantified using measurements of plant growth parameters and chlorophyll fluorometry. It was found that, like other biological control agents of water hyacinth, M. scutellaris was most damaging when released in high numbers on plants grown at medium nutrient levels, and less effective on plants grown at elevated nutrient levels. A water hyacinth infestation on the Kubusi River was selected for the evaluation of the post-winter recovery of M. scutellaris. The Kubusi River is both the first site where M. scutellaris was released, and the coldest site where water hyacinth biological control agents have established successfully in South Africa. Monthly visits tracking seasonal plant health characteristics and agent population densities indicated that the populations of M. scutellaris were impacted most significantly by the season. Low temperatures led to the water hyacinth plants being of poor quality during the winter, which had a subsequent negative effect on the agent populations. The agents could only fully recover by late summer, which meant that the plants were without any significant biological control through the initial phases of the growing season, when they were most vulnerable, and a significant lag-phase occurred between the recovery of the plants and the recovery of the agent population after the winter bottleneck. A survey of all sites where M. scutellaris had been released in South Africa yielded 16 sites where the agents had successfully established, having survived at least one full winter. Among these sites were four sites where the agents were found without them having been released, indicating that they can disperse unaided to new sites. The temperature was a major factor responsible for the success or failure of establishment, with very few agents surviving in the hot areas of South Africa or in areas with a high frost incidence. The density of M. scutellaris was higher in nutrient-rich water, and on plants with more leaves, suggesting that the quality of the plants also contributed to establishment. The results of this thesis showed that M. scutellaris is able to establish successfully in South Africa, and that the agents are capable of causing significant damage to water hyacinth, making it a promising addition to the biological control programme. Novel methods of measuring subtle insect feeding damage in plants and quantifying agent populations are also discussed, along with suggestions for the future implementation of M. scutellaris in South Africa.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Miller, Benjamin Erich
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Megamelus scutellaris Berg. , Delphacidae , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/92330 , vital:30710
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub. (Pontederiaceae) is a free-floating aquatic macrophyte from South America that was introduced to South Africa in the 1900s for its attractive ornamental flowers. The plant was classified as a serious invader in the country in the 1970s, eventually becoming the worst invasive aquatic plant in South Africa. Biological control is widely regarded as the most effective method of managing water hyacinth, as it is ecologically safe, cost-effective, and self-sustaining. To date, nine biological control agents have been released in South Africa against water hyacinth, including eight arthropods and a pathogen. Due to the cumulative effects of highly eutrophic waterbodies, which mitigate the damage caused by biological control, and the cold winters which inhibit the rate of biological control agent population build up, South Africa currently has more biological control agents released on water hyacinth than anywhere else in the world. The need for a cold-tolerant agent that can reproduce and develop quickly, while still being damaging to water hyacinth in eutrophic systems, led to the introduction of the most recently released water hyacinth biological control agent, the planthopper Megamelus scutellaris Berg (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), which was initially collected from Argentina. This thesis formed the first post-release evaluation of M. scutellaris since its release in South Africa in 2013. It included a greenhouse experiment to measure the agent’s feeding damage in relation to different nutrient levels and stocking rates, as well as a field component to evaluate both the post-winter recovery of M. scutellaris, and a nationwide survey to measure the establishment of the agent around the country in relation to climate, water quality, and plant health. In the greenhouse experiment, the feeding damage was quantified using measurements of plant growth parameters and chlorophyll fluorometry. It was found that, like other biological control agents of water hyacinth, M. scutellaris was most damaging when released in high numbers on plants grown at medium nutrient levels, and less effective on plants grown at elevated nutrient levels. A water hyacinth infestation on the Kubusi River was selected for the evaluation of the post-winter recovery of M. scutellaris. The Kubusi River is both the first site where M. scutellaris was released, and the coldest site where water hyacinth biological control agents have established successfully in South Africa. Monthly visits tracking seasonal plant health characteristics and agent population densities indicated that the populations of M. scutellaris were impacted most significantly by the season. Low temperatures led to the water hyacinth plants being of poor quality during the winter, which had a subsequent negative effect on the agent populations. The agents could only fully recover by late summer, which meant that the plants were without any significant biological control through the initial phases of the growing season, when they were most vulnerable, and a significant lag-phase occurred between the recovery of the plants and the recovery of the agent population after the winter bottleneck. A survey of all sites where M. scutellaris had been released in South Africa yielded 16 sites where the agents had successfully established, having survived at least one full winter. Among these sites were four sites where the agents were found without them having been released, indicating that they can disperse unaided to new sites. The temperature was a major factor responsible for the success or failure of establishment, with very few agents surviving in the hot areas of South Africa or in areas with a high frost incidence. The density of M. scutellaris was higher in nutrient-rich water, and on plants with more leaves, suggesting that the quality of the plants also contributed to establishment. The results of this thesis showed that M. scutellaris is able to establish successfully in South Africa, and that the agents are capable of causing significant damage to water hyacinth, making it a promising addition to the biological control programme. Novel methods of measuring subtle insect feeding damage in plants and quantifying agent populations are also discussed, along with suggestions for the future implementation of M. scutellaris in South Africa.
- Full Text:
Reproductive isolation mechanisms of two cryptic species of Eccritotarsus (Hemiptera: Miridae), biological control agents of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae)
- Authors: Mnguni, Sandiso
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Eccritotarsus , Meridae , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/68133 , vital:29202
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae), is one of the world’s worst alien invasive plants. It is indigenous to the Amazon basin in South America but has become a problematic alien invasive in other parts of the world. As such, several host-specific biological control agents have been sourced from the native distributions in South America and have been released to control this plant where it has become problematic. Two of these agents include the geographically and reproductively isolated cryptic species of Eccritotarsus (Hemiptera: Miridae). One of these species was collected in the upper reaches of the Amazon River in Peru, while the other was collected over 3500km away from that site, in Florianopolis, southern Brazil. These cryptic species were thought to be a single species until recently, when DNA barcoding indicated that they were likely to be two species, and the species status has now been confirmed by interbreeding experiments and detailed morphological studies. The Brazilian population remains Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho), while the Peruvian population is now known as Eccritotarsus eichhorniae (Henry). The aim of this project was to investigate the mating behaviour and other behavioural traits of the two species that have resulted in reproductive isolation, and which could have led to speciation. In addition, investigations involving analysis of chemical compound compositions of the two species aimed to determine the extent to which the compounds played a role in the development and maintenance of reproductive isolation. To achieve the aims, behavioural-observation experiments were conducted in the form of no-choice, bi-choice and multi-choice tests in 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1 sex ratio assessments, both within and between species. Chemical compound compositions of E. catarinensis and E. eichhorniae were also assessed using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) and Gas-Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques. In no-choice experiments, the highest number of single and multiple copula incidences, and average total copula duration was found within species while copulation between species was much rarer. In bi-choice experiments, E. eichhorniae females and E. catarinensis males only chose to mate with their respective conspecifics, and within species copulations continued to have higher average total copula duration. In multi-choice experiments, the highest number of single and multiple copula incidences and average total copula duration was also found within species. GC-MS analysis suggested that E. catarinensis females and E. eichhorniae males have unique chemical compounds missing in their conspecifics and same sex of the other species. Further analysis suggested that E. catarinensis females and E. eichhorniae males have similar chemical compound compositions, whereas as E. eichhorniae females and E. catarinensis males have similar chemical compound compositions. These results suggest that there are behavioural differences that led to the development and maintenance of prezygotic reproductive isolation mechanisms, and that this is probably driven by pheromones in chemical compound compositions. These two species were geographically isolated in the native range and the populations have diverged to the point that they are now reproductively incompatible and therefore, distinct species. The main driver of the speciation is most likely mate recognition and attraction, as only reproductively important traits such as pheromones, genitalia, the scent glands and antennae have changed, while other traits, including host range and morphology, have remained remarkably stable. This provides evidence that differences in sexual selection in isolated populations may be important drivers of speciation and reproductive isolation in cryptic species.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Mnguni, Sandiso
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Eccritotarsus , Meridae , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/68133 , vital:29202
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae), is one of the world’s worst alien invasive plants. It is indigenous to the Amazon basin in South America but has become a problematic alien invasive in other parts of the world. As such, several host-specific biological control agents have been sourced from the native distributions in South America and have been released to control this plant where it has become problematic. Two of these agents include the geographically and reproductively isolated cryptic species of Eccritotarsus (Hemiptera: Miridae). One of these species was collected in the upper reaches of the Amazon River in Peru, while the other was collected over 3500km away from that site, in Florianopolis, southern Brazil. These cryptic species were thought to be a single species until recently, when DNA barcoding indicated that they were likely to be two species, and the species status has now been confirmed by interbreeding experiments and detailed morphological studies. The Brazilian population remains Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho), while the Peruvian population is now known as Eccritotarsus eichhorniae (Henry). The aim of this project was to investigate the mating behaviour and other behavioural traits of the two species that have resulted in reproductive isolation, and which could have led to speciation. In addition, investigations involving analysis of chemical compound compositions of the two species aimed to determine the extent to which the compounds played a role in the development and maintenance of reproductive isolation. To achieve the aims, behavioural-observation experiments were conducted in the form of no-choice, bi-choice and multi-choice tests in 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1 sex ratio assessments, both within and between species. Chemical compound compositions of E. catarinensis and E. eichhorniae were also assessed using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) and Gas-Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques. In no-choice experiments, the highest number of single and multiple copula incidences, and average total copula duration was found within species while copulation between species was much rarer. In bi-choice experiments, E. eichhorniae females and E. catarinensis males only chose to mate with their respective conspecifics, and within species copulations continued to have higher average total copula duration. In multi-choice experiments, the highest number of single and multiple copula incidences and average total copula duration was also found within species. GC-MS analysis suggested that E. catarinensis females and E. eichhorniae males have unique chemical compounds missing in their conspecifics and same sex of the other species. Further analysis suggested that E. catarinensis females and E. eichhorniae males have similar chemical compound compositions, whereas as E. eichhorniae females and E. catarinensis males have similar chemical compound compositions. These results suggest that there are behavioural differences that led to the development and maintenance of prezygotic reproductive isolation mechanisms, and that this is probably driven by pheromones in chemical compound compositions. These two species were geographically isolated in the native range and the populations have diverged to the point that they are now reproductively incompatible and therefore, distinct species. The main driver of the speciation is most likely mate recognition and attraction, as only reproductively important traits such as pheromones, genitalia, the scent glands and antennae have changed, while other traits, including host range and morphology, have remained remarkably stable. This provides evidence that differences in sexual selection in isolated populations may be important drivers of speciation and reproductive isolation in cryptic species.
- Full Text:
The invasion ecology of Nymphaea mexicana Zucc. (Mexican Water lily) in South Africa
- Authors: Naidu, Prinavin
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Nymphaea Mexicana zuccarini , Nymphaea , Nymphaea -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies , Nymphaea -- Ecology -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Ecology -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/92920 , vital:30763
- Description: The Mexican water lily, Nymphaea mexicana Zuccarini, is an aquatic perennial, native to southern USA and Mexico, and has been introduced to South Africa via the ornamental plant trade. This species has rapid growth rates and becomes weedy in dams, ponds and rivers. It is currently listed as a NEM:BA category 1b invasive plant in South Africa. One possible management measure for this weed is biological control, but it is a novel target because no biological control programme has been initiated against it anywhere in the world. This study is intended as a baseline for the biological control programme against this plant in South Africa. Assessing the population structure and mode of reproduction of invasive alien plants is an imperative aid to determining if biological control is a suitable management option. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) molecular markers, I compared the amount of genetic variability and differentiation of N. mexicana in its native range (USA), and invasive range (South Africa). Results indicated a large genetic distance between populations in the USA and South Africa, compared to populations within each country. The genetic variability of the invasive populations was higher than that found in the native distribution. This could be due to hybridization in the introduced range, and/or multiple introductions from different source populations. Differences in the morphology of N. mexicana plants in the invasive range and South Africa were also observed which confirm the results of the genetic analyses. I also assessed the reproductive mode of N. mexicana cultivars/hybrids by conducting breeding system experiments and field pollinator studies. Results indicated that the cultivars are sterile, suggesting that the primary mode of reproduction is asexual via fragmentation of tubers. The main pollinators that were found to be associated with the cultivars in South Africa were honeybees, sweat bees, flies and beetles. These insect groups were the same as those that were observed in another study which was conducted on the pollinators associated with the pure N. mexicana in the native range in southern USA. Mechanical and chemical control of N. mexicana and its multiple genotypes have been applied but have not been efficient due to the fast regeneration of shoots, especially in summer. Therefore, these two management options are not long–term solutions and will also be costly due to the widespread occurrence of the hybrids in South Africa. Thus the only cost–effective, environmentally friendly, self–sustainable and long–term management option is biological control. The significant divergence between native and invasive populations of N. mexicana, as well as the possibility of numerous invasive cultivars, may limit future prospects of biological control of this species. However the differences in the root structures between native South African waterlilies, such as N. lotus and N. nouchali, and the introduced waterlilies, such as N. mexicana and its associated hybrids, may play a pivotal role in the success of biological control of the N. mexicana hybrid complex in South Africa. Natural enemies which feed on the hard tuberous roots of N. mexicana and its hybrids, as opposed to the soft bulbs of the native N. nouchali and N. lotus, should be prioritised.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Naidu, Prinavin
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Nymphaea Mexicana zuccarini , Nymphaea , Nymphaea -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies , Nymphaea -- Ecology -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Ecology -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/92920 , vital:30763
- Description: The Mexican water lily, Nymphaea mexicana Zuccarini, is an aquatic perennial, native to southern USA and Mexico, and has been introduced to South Africa via the ornamental plant trade. This species has rapid growth rates and becomes weedy in dams, ponds and rivers. It is currently listed as a NEM:BA category 1b invasive plant in South Africa. One possible management measure for this weed is biological control, but it is a novel target because no biological control programme has been initiated against it anywhere in the world. This study is intended as a baseline for the biological control programme against this plant in South Africa. Assessing the population structure and mode of reproduction of invasive alien plants is an imperative aid to determining if biological control is a suitable management option. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) molecular markers, I compared the amount of genetic variability and differentiation of N. mexicana in its native range (USA), and invasive range (South Africa). Results indicated a large genetic distance between populations in the USA and South Africa, compared to populations within each country. The genetic variability of the invasive populations was higher than that found in the native distribution. This could be due to hybridization in the introduced range, and/or multiple introductions from different source populations. Differences in the morphology of N. mexicana plants in the invasive range and South Africa were also observed which confirm the results of the genetic analyses. I also assessed the reproductive mode of N. mexicana cultivars/hybrids by conducting breeding system experiments and field pollinator studies. Results indicated that the cultivars are sterile, suggesting that the primary mode of reproduction is asexual via fragmentation of tubers. The main pollinators that were found to be associated with the cultivars in South Africa were honeybees, sweat bees, flies and beetles. These insect groups were the same as those that were observed in another study which was conducted on the pollinators associated with the pure N. mexicana in the native range in southern USA. Mechanical and chemical control of N. mexicana and its multiple genotypes have been applied but have not been efficient due to the fast regeneration of shoots, especially in summer. Therefore, these two management options are not long–term solutions and will also be costly due to the widespread occurrence of the hybrids in South Africa. Thus the only cost–effective, environmentally friendly, self–sustainable and long–term management option is biological control. The significant divergence between native and invasive populations of N. mexicana, as well as the possibility of numerous invasive cultivars, may limit future prospects of biological control of this species. However the differences in the root structures between native South African waterlilies, such as N. lotus and N. nouchali, and the introduced waterlilies, such as N. mexicana and its associated hybrids, may play a pivotal role in the success of biological control of the N. mexicana hybrid complex in South Africa. Natural enemies which feed on the hard tuberous roots of N. mexicana and its hybrids, as opposed to the soft bulbs of the native N. nouchali and N. lotus, should be prioritised.
- Full Text:
Interactions between three biological control agents of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae) in South Africa
- Authors: Petela, Nomvume
- Date: 2018
- Subjects: Water hyacinth -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Curculionidae , Delphacidae , Miridae , Neochetina eichhorniae Warner , Megamelus scutellaris Berg , Eccritotarsus eichhorniae Henry
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/60676 , vital:27814
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhomia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae) is a free-floating perennial weed that is regarded as the worst aquatic weed in the world because of its negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems. It is native to the Amazon Basin of South America, but since the late 1800s has spread throughout the world. The first record of the weed in South Africa was noted in 1908 on the Cape Flats and in KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now dispersed throughout the country. Mechanical and chemical control methods have been used against the weed, but biological control is considered the most cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly intervention. Currently, nine biological control agents have been released against water hyacinth in South Africa, and Neochetina eichhorniae Warner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is used most widely to control it. However, in some sites, water hyacinth mats have still not been brought under control because of eutrophic waters and cool temperatures. It was therefore necessary to release new biological control agents to complement the impact of N. eichhorniae. Megamelus scutellaris Berg (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) was released in 2013, but little is known about how it interacts with other agents already present in South Africa. It is likely to compete with the established biological control agent, Eccritotarsus eichhorniae Henry (Heteroptera: Miridae), because they are both sap suckers. On the other hand, N. eichhorniae is the most widespread and thus the most important biological control agent for water hyacinth. The aim of this study, then, was to determine the interactions between the two sap-sucking agents in South Africa that presumably occupy similar niches on the plant, and the interaction between M. scutellerais and N. eichhorniae, the most widely distributed and abundant agent in South Africa. Three experiments were conducted at the Waainek Research Facility at Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Plants were grown for two weeks and insect species were inoculated singly or in combination. Water hyacinth, plant growth parameters and insect parameters were measured every 14 days for a period of 12 weeks. The results of the study showed that feeding by either E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris had no effect on the feeding of the other agent. Both agents reduced all the measured plant growth parameters equally, either singly or in combination (i.e. E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris alone or together). The interaction between the two agents appears neutral and agents are likely to complement each other in the field. Prior feeding by E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris on water hyacinth did not affect the subsequent feeding by either agent. Megamelus scutellaris prefers healthy fresh water hyacinth plants. In addition, planthoppers performed best in combination with the weevil, especially on plants with new weevil feeding scars. The results of the study showed that M. scutellaris is compatible with other biological control agents of water hyacinth that are already established in South Africa. Therefore, the introduction of M. scutellaris may enhance the biological control of water hyacinth in South Africa.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Petela, Nomvume
- Date: 2018
- Subjects: Water hyacinth -- South Africa , Water hyacinth -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Curculionidae , Delphacidae , Miridae , Neochetina eichhorniae Warner , Megamelus scutellaris Berg , Eccritotarsus eichhorniae Henry
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/60676 , vital:27814
- Description: Water hyacinth, Eichhomia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae) is a free-floating perennial weed that is regarded as the worst aquatic weed in the world because of its negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems. It is native to the Amazon Basin of South America, but since the late 1800s has spread throughout the world. The first record of the weed in South Africa was noted in 1908 on the Cape Flats and in KwaZulu-Natal, but it is now dispersed throughout the country. Mechanical and chemical control methods have been used against the weed, but biological control is considered the most cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly intervention. Currently, nine biological control agents have been released against water hyacinth in South Africa, and Neochetina eichhorniae Warner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is used most widely to control it. However, in some sites, water hyacinth mats have still not been brought under control because of eutrophic waters and cool temperatures. It was therefore necessary to release new biological control agents to complement the impact of N. eichhorniae. Megamelus scutellaris Berg (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) was released in 2013, but little is known about how it interacts with other agents already present in South Africa. It is likely to compete with the established biological control agent, Eccritotarsus eichhorniae Henry (Heteroptera: Miridae), because they are both sap suckers. On the other hand, N. eichhorniae is the most widespread and thus the most important biological control agent for water hyacinth. The aim of this study, then, was to determine the interactions between the two sap-sucking agents in South Africa that presumably occupy similar niches on the plant, and the interaction between M. scutellerais and N. eichhorniae, the most widely distributed and abundant agent in South Africa. Three experiments were conducted at the Waainek Research Facility at Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Plants were grown for two weeks and insect species were inoculated singly or in combination. Water hyacinth, plant growth parameters and insect parameters were measured every 14 days for a period of 12 weeks. The results of the study showed that feeding by either E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris had no effect on the feeding of the other agent. Both agents reduced all the measured plant growth parameters equally, either singly or in combination (i.e. E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris alone or together). The interaction between the two agents appears neutral and agents are likely to complement each other in the field. Prior feeding by E. eichhorniae or M. scutellaris on water hyacinth did not affect the subsequent feeding by either agent. Megamelus scutellaris prefers healthy fresh water hyacinth plants. In addition, planthoppers performed best in combination with the weevil, especially on plants with new weevil feeding scars. The results of the study showed that M. scutellaris is compatible with other biological control agents of water hyacinth that are already established in South Africa. Therefore, the introduction of M. scutellaris may enhance the biological control of water hyacinth in South Africa.
- Full Text:
The thermal physiology of Stenopelmus rufinasus and Neohydronomus affinis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), biological control agents for the invasive alien aquatic weeds Azolla filiculoides and Pistia stratiotes respectively
- Authors: Mvandaba, Sisanda F
- Date: 2018
- Subjects: Beetles -- South Africa , Curculionidae -- South Africa , Azolla filiculoides -- South Africa , Water lettuce -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Stenopelmus rufinasus , Neohydronomus affinis
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/62362 , vital:28158
- Description: Water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae), and red water fern, Azolla filiculoides Lam. (Azollaceae), are floating aquatic macrophytes that have become problematic invaders in numerous South African waterbodies. Two weevils, Neohydronomus affinis Hustache 1926 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal 1936 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), are successful biological control agents of these two species, respectively, in South Africa. However, nothing is known about the thermal physiology of these two species Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the thermal physiologies of these two species to explain their establishment, distribution and impact in the field. Laboratory based thermal physiology trials showed that both weevils were widely tolerant of cold and warm temperatures. The CTmin of N. affinis was determined to be 5.5 ± 0.312°C and the CTmax was 44 ± 0.697°C, while the CTmin of S. rufinasus was 5.4 ± 0.333°C and the CTmax was 44.5 ± 0.168°C. In addition, the lower lethal temperatures were -9.8 ± 0.053°C and -7.2 ± 0.19°C, and the upper lethal temperatures were 42.8 ± 0.053°C and 41.9 ± 0.19°C respectively. These results suggest that both species should not be limited by cold winter temperatures, as previously thought. This is evident in the field, where S. rufinasus has established widely on A. filiculoides, despite local cold climates in some areas of the plant’s distribution. Even though N. affinis has a similar thermal range, and should therefore theoretically reflect a similar distribution to S. rufinasus throughout South Africa, its distribution is limited by the range of its host, which is restricted to the warmer regions of the country, as is its biocontrol agent. Using the reduced major axis regression method, the development for N. affinis was described using the formulay=12.976x+435.24, while the development of S. rufinasus was described by y=13.6x+222.45. These results showed that S. rufinasus develops much faster, in fact almost twice as quickly, than N. affinis. Using these formulae and temperature data obtained from the South African Weather Service, N. affinis was predicted to complete between 4 and 9 generations per year in South Africa, while S. rufinasus was predicted to complete between 5 and 14 generations per year around the country. This study showed that although the native range of these two species is warm temperate to tropical, they possess sufficient thermal plasticity to not only establish, but also damage their respective host plants in far cooler climates. Thus, in South Africa N. affinis and S. rufinasus are limited by the distribution of their target weeds and not climate.
- Full Text:
- Authors: Mvandaba, Sisanda F
- Date: 2018
- Subjects: Beetles -- South Africa , Curculionidae -- South Africa , Azolla filiculoides -- South Africa , Water lettuce -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Stenopelmus rufinasus , Neohydronomus affinis
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/62362 , vital:28158
- Description: Water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae), and red water fern, Azolla filiculoides Lam. (Azollaceae), are floating aquatic macrophytes that have become problematic invaders in numerous South African waterbodies. Two weevils, Neohydronomus affinis Hustache 1926 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal 1936 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), are successful biological control agents of these two species, respectively, in South Africa. However, nothing is known about the thermal physiology of these two species Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the thermal physiologies of these two species to explain their establishment, distribution and impact in the field. Laboratory based thermal physiology trials showed that both weevils were widely tolerant of cold and warm temperatures. The CTmin of N. affinis was determined to be 5.5 ± 0.312°C and the CTmax was 44 ± 0.697°C, while the CTmin of S. rufinasus was 5.4 ± 0.333°C and the CTmax was 44.5 ± 0.168°C. In addition, the lower lethal temperatures were -9.8 ± 0.053°C and -7.2 ± 0.19°C, and the upper lethal temperatures were 42.8 ± 0.053°C and 41.9 ± 0.19°C respectively. These results suggest that both species should not be limited by cold winter temperatures, as previously thought. This is evident in the field, where S. rufinasus has established widely on A. filiculoides, despite local cold climates in some areas of the plant’s distribution. Even though N. affinis has a similar thermal range, and should therefore theoretically reflect a similar distribution to S. rufinasus throughout South Africa, its distribution is limited by the range of its host, which is restricted to the warmer regions of the country, as is its biocontrol agent. Using the reduced major axis regression method, the development for N. affinis was described using the formulay=12.976x+435.24, while the development of S. rufinasus was described by y=13.6x+222.45. These results showed that S. rufinasus develops much faster, in fact almost twice as quickly, than N. affinis. Using these formulae and temperature data obtained from the South African Weather Service, N. affinis was predicted to complete between 4 and 9 generations per year in South Africa, while S. rufinasus was predicted to complete between 5 and 14 generations per year around the country. This study showed that although the native range of these two species is warm temperate to tropical, they possess sufficient thermal plasticity to not only establish, but also damage their respective host plants in far cooler climates. Thus, in South Africa N. affinis and S. rufinasus are limited by the distribution of their target weeds and not climate.
- Full Text:
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