Development of a bench scale single batch biomass to liquid fuel facility
- Authors: Zhang, Yusheng
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Biomass energy , Renewable energy sources , Energy conversion , Electric power production
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc (Chemistry)
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/811 , vital:26499 , Biomass energy , Renewable energy sources , Energy conversion , Electric power production
- Description: The research described in this dissertation was motivated by the global demand for energy that is not dependent on coal, oil, natural gas and other non-renewable fossil fuels. The technology used in this project is related to the use of biomass to produce a viable alternative to conventional sources of fuel. A bench scale biomass to liquid (BTL) facility was built and tested. This produced results confirming the feasibility of the BTL process. The findings of the pilot study outlined in this dissertation justified the conclusion that the next step will be to expand the capacity and productivity of the BTL pilot plant to an industrial scale. Biomass comes from a variety of renewable sources that are readily available. In this case, the material used in the fixed bed biomass gasification facility to generate wood gas was agricultural and forestry waste, such as straw and wood chips. The gasifier had the capacity to produce up to 10 cubic metres/hr of gas with a carbon monoxide and hydrogen content of between 20–40% by volume, when it was operated at ambient pressure and with air as the oxidizer. The gas, produced at a temperature above 700º C, was cooled in a quench/water scrubber in order to remove most of the mechanical impurities (tars and water-soluble inorganic particles), condensed and dried with corn cobs before being compressed in cylinders at over 100 bar (g) for use in the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS). The syngas was subjected further to a series of refining processes which included removal of sulphur and oxygen. The sulphur removal technology chosen entailed applying modified activated carbon to adsorb H2S with the help of hydrolysis in order to convert organic sulphur impurities into H2S which reduced the sulphur content of the gas to less than 5 ppbv. Supported cobalt catalyst (100 grams), were loaded into a single-tube fixed bed FT reactor with an inner diameter of 50 mm. The reactor was fitted with a heating jacket through which, heated oil ran to cool the reactor during a normal reaction occurring at < 250 ºC, while nitrogen was used in the heating jacket during reduction, which occurred at temperatures up ~ 350 ºC. The FTS reaction was carried out at different pressures and temperatures. Liquid and wax products were produced from the facility. The properties of the liquid and solid hydrocarbons produced were found to be the same as FT products from other feed stocks, such as natural gas and coal.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
- Authors: Zhang, Yusheng
- Date: 2014
- Subjects: Biomass energy , Renewable energy sources , Energy conversion , Electric power production
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc (Chemistry)
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/811 , vital:26499 , Biomass energy , Renewable energy sources , Energy conversion , Electric power production
- Description: The research described in this dissertation was motivated by the global demand for energy that is not dependent on coal, oil, natural gas and other non-renewable fossil fuels. The technology used in this project is related to the use of biomass to produce a viable alternative to conventional sources of fuel. A bench scale biomass to liquid (BTL) facility was built and tested. This produced results confirming the feasibility of the BTL process. The findings of the pilot study outlined in this dissertation justified the conclusion that the next step will be to expand the capacity and productivity of the BTL pilot plant to an industrial scale. Biomass comes from a variety of renewable sources that are readily available. In this case, the material used in the fixed bed biomass gasification facility to generate wood gas was agricultural and forestry waste, such as straw and wood chips. The gasifier had the capacity to produce up to 10 cubic metres/hr of gas with a carbon monoxide and hydrogen content of between 20–40% by volume, when it was operated at ambient pressure and with air as the oxidizer. The gas, produced at a temperature above 700º C, was cooled in a quench/water scrubber in order to remove most of the mechanical impurities (tars and water-soluble inorganic particles), condensed and dried with corn cobs before being compressed in cylinders at over 100 bar (g) for use in the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS). The syngas was subjected further to a series of refining processes which included removal of sulphur and oxygen. The sulphur removal technology chosen entailed applying modified activated carbon to adsorb H2S with the help of hydrolysis in order to convert organic sulphur impurities into H2S which reduced the sulphur content of the gas to less than 5 ppbv. Supported cobalt catalyst (100 grams), were loaded into a single-tube fixed bed FT reactor with an inner diameter of 50 mm. The reactor was fitted with a heating jacket through which, heated oil ran to cool the reactor during a normal reaction occurring at < 250 ºC, while nitrogen was used in the heating jacket during reduction, which occurred at temperatures up ~ 350 ºC. The FTS reaction was carried out at different pressures and temperatures. Liquid and wax products were produced from the facility. The properties of the liquid and solid hydrocarbons produced were found to be the same as FT products from other feed stocks, such as natural gas and coal.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2014
On the evaluation of spectral effects on photovoltaic modules performance parameters and hotspots in solar cells
- Authors: Simon, Michael
- Date: 2009
- Subjects: Photovoltaic cells , Energy dissipation , Electric power production , Photovoltaic power generation , Solar energy , Spectral energy distribution
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD (Physics)
- Identifier: vital:11593 , http://hdl.handle.net/10353/257 , Photovoltaic cells , Energy dissipation , Electric power production , Photovoltaic power generation , Solar energy , Spectral energy distribution
- Description: The performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules in terms of their ability to convert incident photon to electrical energy (efficiency) depends mostly on the spectral distribution of incident radiation from the sun. The incident spectrum finally perceived by the module depends strongly on the composition of the medium in which it has traveled. The composition of the earth’s atmosphere, which includes, amongst others, water vapour, gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, absorbs or scatters some of the sunlight. The incident solar spectrum is also modified by the diffuse aspect of radiation from the sky which strongly depends on aerosol concentration, cloudiness and local reflection of the earth’s surface. Although it is well known that the changes in outdoor spectrum affect device performance, little work has been conducted to support this theory. This is probably due to lack of spectral data or in certain instances where data is available, little knowledge of interpreting that data. The outdoor spectral data that one obtains in the field does not come clearly for just simple interpretation. Different analytical interpretation procedures have been proposed, all trying to explain and quantify the spectral influence on PV devices. In this study an assessment methodology for evaluating the effects of outdoor spectra on device performance parameters during the course of the day, seasons and or cloudy cover has been developed. The methodology consists of developing a device dependant concept, Weighted Useful Fraction (WUF) using the outdoor measured spectral data. For measuring PV module’s performance parameters, a current-voltage (I-V) tester was developed in order to monitor the performance of six different module technologies. The Gaussian distribution was used to interpret the data. For hot-spot analysis, different techniques were used, which include Infrared thermographic technique for identifying the hot-spots in the solar cells, SEM and EDX techniques. The AES technique was also used in order to identify other elements at hot-spots sites that could not be detected by the EDX technique. iii Results obtained indicate that multicrystalline modules performance is affected by the changes in the outdoor spectrum during summer or winter seasons. The modules prefer a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.809 during summer season. This spectrum corresponds to AM 2.19 which is different from AM 1.5 used for device ratings. In winter, the mc-Si module’s WUF (0.7125) peaks at 13h00 at a value corresponding to AM 1.83. Although these devices have a wider wavelength range, they respond differently in real outdoor environment. Results for mono – Si module showed that the device performs best at WUF = 0.6457 which corresponds to AM 1.83 during summer season, while it operates optimally under a winter spectrum indicated by WUF of 0.5691 (AM2.58). The seasonal changes resulted in the shift in WUF during day time corresponding to the “preferred” spectrum. This shift indicates that these devices should be rated using AM values that correspond to the WUF values under which the device operates optimally. For poly-Si, it was also observed the WUF values are lower than the other two crystalline-Si counterparts. The pc-Si was observed to prefer a lower AM value indicated by WUF = 0.5813 during winter season while for summer it prefers a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.5541 at AM 3.36. The performance of the single junction a-Si module degraded by 67 percent after an initial outdoor exposure of 16 kWh/m² while the HIT module did not exhibit the initial degradation regardless of their similarities in material composition. It was established that the WUF before degradation peaks at 15h00 at a value of 0.7130 corresponding to AM 4.50 while the WUF after degradation “prefers” the spectrum (WUF = 0.6578) experienced at 15h30 corresponding to AM value of 5.57. Comparing the before and after degradation scenarios of a-Si:H, it was observed that the device spends less time under the red spectrum which implies that the device “prefers” a full spectrum to operate optimally. The degradation of a-Si:H device revealed that the device spectral response was also shifted by a 7.7 percent after degradation. A higher percentage difference (61.8 percent) for spectral range for the HIT module is observed, but with no effects on device parameters. Seasonal changes (summer/winter) resulted in the outdoor spectrum of CuInSe2 to vary by WUF = 1.5 percent, which resulted in the decrease in Isc. This was ascertained by iv analyzing the percentage change in WUF and evaluating the corresponding change in Isc. The analysis showed that there was a large percentage difference of the module’s Isc as the outdoor spectrum changed during the course of the day. This confirmed that the 17 percent decrease in Isc was due to a WUF of 1.5 percent. In mc-Si solar cells used in this study, it was found that elemental composition across the entire solar cell was not homogenously distributed resulting in high concentration of transition metals which were detected at hot spot areas. The presence of transition metals causes hot-spot formation in crystalline solar cells. Although several transition elements exist at hot-spot regions, the presence of oxygen, carbon, iron and platinum was detected in high concentrations. From this study, it is highly recommended that transition elements and oxygen must be minimized so as to increase the life expectancy of these devices and improve overall systems reliability
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2009
- Authors: Simon, Michael
- Date: 2009
- Subjects: Photovoltaic cells , Energy dissipation , Electric power production , Photovoltaic power generation , Solar energy , Spectral energy distribution
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Doctoral , PhD (Physics)
- Identifier: vital:11593 , http://hdl.handle.net/10353/257 , Photovoltaic cells , Energy dissipation , Electric power production , Photovoltaic power generation , Solar energy , Spectral energy distribution
- Description: The performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules in terms of their ability to convert incident photon to electrical energy (efficiency) depends mostly on the spectral distribution of incident radiation from the sun. The incident spectrum finally perceived by the module depends strongly on the composition of the medium in which it has traveled. The composition of the earth’s atmosphere, which includes, amongst others, water vapour, gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, absorbs or scatters some of the sunlight. The incident solar spectrum is also modified by the diffuse aspect of radiation from the sky which strongly depends on aerosol concentration, cloudiness and local reflection of the earth’s surface. Although it is well known that the changes in outdoor spectrum affect device performance, little work has been conducted to support this theory. This is probably due to lack of spectral data or in certain instances where data is available, little knowledge of interpreting that data. The outdoor spectral data that one obtains in the field does not come clearly for just simple interpretation. Different analytical interpretation procedures have been proposed, all trying to explain and quantify the spectral influence on PV devices. In this study an assessment methodology for evaluating the effects of outdoor spectra on device performance parameters during the course of the day, seasons and or cloudy cover has been developed. The methodology consists of developing a device dependant concept, Weighted Useful Fraction (WUF) using the outdoor measured spectral data. For measuring PV module’s performance parameters, a current-voltage (I-V) tester was developed in order to monitor the performance of six different module technologies. The Gaussian distribution was used to interpret the data. For hot-spot analysis, different techniques were used, which include Infrared thermographic technique for identifying the hot-spots in the solar cells, SEM and EDX techniques. The AES technique was also used in order to identify other elements at hot-spots sites that could not be detected by the EDX technique. iii Results obtained indicate that multicrystalline modules performance is affected by the changes in the outdoor spectrum during summer or winter seasons. The modules prefer a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.809 during summer season. This spectrum corresponds to AM 2.19 which is different from AM 1.5 used for device ratings. In winter, the mc-Si module’s WUF (0.7125) peaks at 13h00 at a value corresponding to AM 1.83. Although these devices have a wider wavelength range, they respond differently in real outdoor environment. Results for mono – Si module showed that the device performs best at WUF = 0.6457 which corresponds to AM 1.83 during summer season, while it operates optimally under a winter spectrum indicated by WUF of 0.5691 (AM2.58). The seasonal changes resulted in the shift in WUF during day time corresponding to the “preferred” spectrum. This shift indicates that these devices should be rated using AM values that correspond to the WUF values under which the device operates optimally. For poly-Si, it was also observed the WUF values are lower than the other two crystalline-Si counterparts. The pc-Si was observed to prefer a lower AM value indicated by WUF = 0.5813 during winter season while for summer it prefers a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.5541 at AM 3.36. The performance of the single junction a-Si module degraded by 67 percent after an initial outdoor exposure of 16 kWh/m² while the HIT module did not exhibit the initial degradation regardless of their similarities in material composition. It was established that the WUF before degradation peaks at 15h00 at a value of 0.7130 corresponding to AM 4.50 while the WUF after degradation “prefers” the spectrum (WUF = 0.6578) experienced at 15h30 corresponding to AM value of 5.57. Comparing the before and after degradation scenarios of a-Si:H, it was observed that the device spends less time under the red spectrum which implies that the device “prefers” a full spectrum to operate optimally. The degradation of a-Si:H device revealed that the device spectral response was also shifted by a 7.7 percent after degradation. A higher percentage difference (61.8 percent) for spectral range for the HIT module is observed, but with no effects on device parameters. Seasonal changes (summer/winter) resulted in the outdoor spectrum of CuInSe2 to vary by WUF = 1.5 percent, which resulted in the decrease in Isc. This was ascertained by iv analyzing the percentage change in WUF and evaluating the corresponding change in Isc. The analysis showed that there was a large percentage difference of the module’s Isc as the outdoor spectrum changed during the course of the day. This confirmed that the 17 percent decrease in Isc was due to a WUF of 1.5 percent. In mc-Si solar cells used in this study, it was found that elemental composition across the entire solar cell was not homogenously distributed resulting in high concentration of transition metals which were detected at hot spot areas. The presence of transition metals causes hot-spot formation in crystalline solar cells. Although several transition elements exist at hot-spot regions, the presence of oxygen, carbon, iron and platinum was detected in high concentrations. From this study, it is highly recommended that transition elements and oxygen must be minimized so as to increase the life expectancy of these devices and improve overall systems reliability
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2009
Hybrid field generator controller for optimised perfomance
- Authors: Moleli, Christopher Teboho
- Date: 2003
- Subjects: Hybrid power systems , Wind turbines , Electric power production
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MTech (Electrical Engineering)
- Identifier: vital:10818 , http://hdl.handle.net/10948/236 , Hybrid power systems , Wind turbines , Electric power production
- Description: Battery charging wind turbines like, Hybrid Field Generator, have become more popular in the growing renewable energy market. With wind energy, voltage and current control is generally provided by means of power electronics. The paper describes the analytical investigation in to control aspects of a hybrid field generator controller for optimized performance. The project objective is about maintaining the generated voltage at 28V through out a generator speed range, between 149 rpm and 598 rpm. The over voltage load, known as dump load, is connected to the control circuit to reduce stress on the bypass transistor for speeds above 598 rpm. Maintaining a stable voltage through out the speed range, between 149rpm and 598rpm, is achieved by employing power electronics techniques. This is done by using power converters and inverters to vary the generator armature excitation levels hence varying its air gap flux density. All these take place during each of the three modes of generator operation, which are: buck, boost and permanent magnet modes. Although the generator controller is power electronics based, it also uses software to optimize its performance. In this case, a PIC16F877 microcontroller development system has been used to test the controller function blocks.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2003
- Authors: Moleli, Christopher Teboho
- Date: 2003
- Subjects: Hybrid power systems , Wind turbines , Electric power production
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MTech (Electrical Engineering)
- Identifier: vital:10818 , http://hdl.handle.net/10948/236 , Hybrid power systems , Wind turbines , Electric power production
- Description: Battery charging wind turbines like, Hybrid Field Generator, have become more popular in the growing renewable energy market. With wind energy, voltage and current control is generally provided by means of power electronics. The paper describes the analytical investigation in to control aspects of a hybrid field generator controller for optimized performance. The project objective is about maintaining the generated voltage at 28V through out a generator speed range, between 149 rpm and 598 rpm. The over voltage load, known as dump load, is connected to the control circuit to reduce stress on the bypass transistor for speeds above 598 rpm. Maintaining a stable voltage through out the speed range, between 149rpm and 598rpm, is achieved by employing power electronics techniques. This is done by using power converters and inverters to vary the generator armature excitation levels hence varying its air gap flux density. All these take place during each of the three modes of generator operation, which are: buck, boost and permanent magnet modes. Although the generator controller is power electronics based, it also uses software to optimize its performance. In this case, a PIC16F877 microcontroller development system has been used to test the controller function blocks.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2003
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