An initial investigation into biological control options for Schinus terebinthifolia in South Africa
- Authors: Magengelele, Nwabisa Laurencia
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Anacardiaceae -- Biological control -- South Africa , Plants, Ornamental -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Insects as biological pest control agents -- South Africa , Brazilian pepper tree -- Biological control -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/103835 , vital:32306
- Description: Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi (Anacardiaceae) (Brazilian pepper tree) is a native tree to subtropical South America that was introduced into South Africa as an ornamental plant. Globally, it is regarded as one of the world’s worst invasive trees. In South Africa, this aggressive pioneer species is becoming increasingly problematic and is being considered as a target for biological control. In South Africa the tree has acquired a native seed-feeding wasp, Megastigmus transvaalensis Hussey (Hymenoptera: Torymidae). The wasp’s native hosts are indigenous Rhus species (Anacardiaceae), but it has expanded its host range to form a new association with both S. terebinthifolia and its close relative S. molle L. (Anacardiaceae). In order to quantify the seed predation by M. transvaalensis on S. terebinthifolia seeds, tree populations were surveyed across the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. The wasp was present at 99% of the S. terebinthifolia populations with an average of 22% of the seeds being destroyed. In the Eastern Cape Province, the highest seed damage occurred at the start of the winter months, when about 35% of seeds were damaged. This fell to less than 12% in spring and summer when the plants were flowering. Megastigmus transvaalensis may have slowed the rate of spread of the plant, but it is unlikely to reduce population sizes of S. terebinthifolia in South Africa in the long-term. Biological control efforts can be assisted by knowing the origin and invasion history of the target species. Genetic analyses are often the only way to elucidate the invasion history of invasive alien plants because it is rare to find detailed records of plant introductions. Both microsatellite and chloroplast DNA analysis were conducted on S. terebinthifolia trees from the plant’s introduced distribution in South Africa and both Florida and Hawaii, USA. These samples were compared to plants from the native distribution of South America. The analysis indicated that the S. terebinthifolia in South Africa was most likely sourced from the state of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, which is the same source of the invasive populations in Florida and Hawaii. Importantly, the South African populations were all found to be “haplotype A”. Plants samples collected from Hawaii USA were the closest match to the South African plants. Biological control agents known to damage haplotype A which have been considered for use in Hawaii and Florida should therefore be prioritised for South Africa. Schinus terebinthifolia has a broad distribution in South Africa; however, the majority of the current distribution is limited to the coastal regions along the eastern coast in KwaZulu-Natal Province. This suggests that the species may be climatically limited. Species distribution models in MaxEnt were used to predict the suitable ecological niche of the species. Using occurrence localities from both the native and invaded range to calibrate the models resulted in 56% of the modelled areas being considered suitable for the growth of S. terebinthifolia in South Africa. This included areas in the Eastern Cape, Western Cape and Limpopo provinces. When the models were calibrated using just the native range data, or just the invaded range data, predicted distributions were more restricted and limited to the coastal areas of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces. The coastal areas between Florianopolis and Santos in Brazil were highlighted as the most climatically similar to the invasive populations of S. terebinthifolia in South Africa. These areas should be prioritised if native range surveys for potential biological control agents are conducted in South America. Although the native seed-feeding wasp is damaging to S. terebinthifolia in South Africa, the tree is still not under suitable levels of biological control and is likely to spread and increase in density. New biological control agents are therefore required. Genetic and climatic matching has determined where the most appropriate region to collect new potential biological control agents is. The genetic matching data has also indicated that biological control agents that have been released, or are being considered for release, in Hawaii and Florida, are likely to be suitable for the South African plants because they have been shown to be damaging to ‘haplotype A’. These agents should therefore be the first to be considered for release in South Africa.
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Initiating biological control for Nymphaea mexicana zuccarini (Nymphaeaceae) in South Africa
- Authors: Reid, Megan Kim
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Nymphaea mexicana zuccarini -- Biological control -- South Africa , Nymphaeaceae -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/144510 , vital:38352
- Description: Nymphaea mexicana Zuccarini (Nymphaeaceae) is an aquatic plant originating from south-eastern USA that is becoming increasingly invasive in South Africa as other invasive aquatic plants are being managed successfully through biological control. Mechanical and chemical control of aquatic weeds is expensive, damaging to the environment, and only effective in the short term, so biological control is more desirable as a management strategy for N. mexicana. The biological control of invasive alien plants requires that agents are host specific so that non-target risks are mitigated. For success to be achieved, it is important to ensure that the genetic structure of invasive populations is clarified so that agents can be collected from populations in the native range that match genetically to populations in the invasive range. This is especially important in cases where the morphology of invasive alien plants does not reflect genetic differences between populations. A previous study of the genetic structure of the invasive populations of N. mexicana in South Africa suggests the presence of hybrid forms of the plant in South Africa, with only one of these populations matching with samples from the native range. However, the study only used samples from two sites in the native range using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), so it was necessary to conduct further genetic analyses using samples from more sites in the native range. Hence, the first aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of the genetic structure of N. mexicana populations in the native and invaded range. Genetic samples were collected from sites in the native range during field surveys for potential biological control agents, and inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) were used to compare the genetic structure of invasive and native populations of N. mexicana in South Africa. The results from these analyses suggest that seven of the 14 investigated invasive populations of N. mexicana in South Africa are genetically similar to populations in the native range, while the remaining seven populations are likely to be hybrid forms of the plant. This knowledge will be useful to target populations for biological control and highlights the need for further genetic analyses to determine the parentage of these hybrids so that biological control efforts are more likely to be successful. The initiation of a biological control programme requires that a series of steps are taken in order to maximise the likelihood that this form of intervention will be successful. The first few steps include: identification of the target weed and its genetic structure; exploration in the native range for potential biological control agents; and prioritisation of these agents based on factors such as climatic and genetic compatibility, feeding damage, abundance, and likely host range. Hence, the second aim of this study was to conduct surveys for potential biological control agents in the native range of N. mexicana, and to prioritise these agents. Field surveys were conducted between August and October in 2018 at 17 sites in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, USA. Sites were selected based on climatic similarity of native sites compared to invasive sites by use of MaxEnt modelling. Native N. mexicana plants were searched for natural enemies, and these were prioritised based on feeding damage, abundance, incidence, and observations of field host range. Two species were prioritised: Bagous americanus LeConte (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Megamelus toddi Beamer (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). These species will be imported into quarantine facilities at Rhodes University for host specificity tests to be conducted. Understanding the factors that contribute to the successful establishment of biological control agents is important to improve the efficiency and reduce the costs incurred during the initiation of biological control programmes. Acquiring knowledge of the factors that predict the efficacy of biological control agents is similarly important, and these factors are discussed in the last chapter of this study. The challenges of the biological control of hybrids are also considered, and recommendations are made for the control of N. mexicana and other plants in South Africa.
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Managing the invasive aquatic plant Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G. Sm(Alismataceae): problems and prospects
- Authors: Ndlovu, Mpilonhle Sinothando
- Date: 2020
- Subjects: Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Sagittaria latifolia -- Biological control -- South Africa , Noxious weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Listronotus , Insects as biological pest control agents
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/167121 , vital:41439
- Description: Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G.Sm. (Alismataceae), commonly known as Delta arrowhead, is an invasive aquatic macrophyte native to southern United States of America (USA) that has become a serious weed in freshwater systems in South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and recently China. In South Africa, the plant was first detected in Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal Province in 2008, and due to its known impact in other countries, it was listed as a Category 1a invader species under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 2004 (NEM: BA). This listing required mechanical and chemical control methods to be implemented by the South African National Biodiversity Institute’s (SANBI), Invasive Species Programme (ISP), with the aim of eradicating the weed. Despite the eradication efforts, by 2016, the weed was recognized as one of the country’s top 10 worst and fastest spreading invasive alien plants. Since its introduction in 2008, the plant has spread both within and between sites in South Africa, increasing from one site in 2008 to 72 sites by 2019. Once introduced into lotic systems, the plant spread rapidly downstream, in some cases up to 120km within six years, with an average of 10 km per year. Extirpation over the last ten years was only possible at a limited number of sites. Under the current management approach, the invasion is foreseen to spread to new sites within a 5 km radius of the current populations. Due to the failure of conventional control mechanisms, biological control is currently being considered as a potential control option. Four potential biological control agents are under investigation, but none have been released. Amongst them is the fruit and flower feeding weevil Listronotus appendiculatus Bohm. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) which showed most potential as a suitable biological control agent. This study demonstrated that L. appendiculatus herbivory negatively influenced the overall fitness of S. platyphylla by reducing the plant’s growth rate and above ground biomass. Listronotus appendiculatus herbivory also reduced the plant’s size and the potential to kill adult plants. Most importantly, L. appendiculatus larval feeding damage significantly reduce viable-germinating seeds, the weed’s primary dispersal mechanism. Therefore, a biological control programme is advised to be integrated within the current management plan.
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The invasion ecology of Nymphaea mexicana Zucc. (Mexican Water lily) in South Africa
- Authors: Naidu, Prinavin
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Nymphaea Mexicana zuccarini , Nymphaea , Nymphaea -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies , Nymphaea -- Ecology -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Biological control -- South Africa , Invasive plants -- Biological control -- South Africa , Aquatic weeds -- Biological control -- South Africa , Water lilies -- Ecology -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: text , Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10962/92920 , vital:30763
- Description: The Mexican water lily, Nymphaea mexicana Zuccarini, is an aquatic perennial, native to southern USA and Mexico, and has been introduced to South Africa via the ornamental plant trade. This species has rapid growth rates and becomes weedy in dams, ponds and rivers. It is currently listed as a NEM:BA category 1b invasive plant in South Africa. One possible management measure for this weed is biological control, but it is a novel target because no biological control programme has been initiated against it anywhere in the world. This study is intended as a baseline for the biological control programme against this plant in South Africa. Assessing the population structure and mode of reproduction of invasive alien plants is an imperative aid to determining if biological control is a suitable management option. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) molecular markers, I compared the amount of genetic variability and differentiation of N. mexicana in its native range (USA), and invasive range (South Africa). Results indicated a large genetic distance between populations in the USA and South Africa, compared to populations within each country. The genetic variability of the invasive populations was higher than that found in the native distribution. This could be due to hybridization in the introduced range, and/or multiple introductions from different source populations. Differences in the morphology of N. mexicana plants in the invasive range and South Africa were also observed which confirm the results of the genetic analyses. I also assessed the reproductive mode of N. mexicana cultivars/hybrids by conducting breeding system experiments and field pollinator studies. Results indicated that the cultivars are sterile, suggesting that the primary mode of reproduction is asexual via fragmentation of tubers. The main pollinators that were found to be associated with the cultivars in South Africa were honeybees, sweat bees, flies and beetles. These insect groups were the same as those that were observed in another study which was conducted on the pollinators associated with the pure N. mexicana in the native range in southern USA. Mechanical and chemical control of N. mexicana and its multiple genotypes have been applied but have not been efficient due to the fast regeneration of shoots, especially in summer. Therefore, these two management options are not long–term solutions and will also be costly due to the widespread occurrence of the hybrids in South Africa. Thus the only cost–effective, environmentally friendly, self–sustainable and long–term management option is biological control. The significant divergence between native and invasive populations of N. mexicana, as well as the possibility of numerous invasive cultivars, may limit future prospects of biological control of this species. However the differences in the root structures between native South African waterlilies, such as N. lotus and N. nouchali, and the introduced waterlilies, such as N. mexicana and its associated hybrids, may play a pivotal role in the success of biological control of the N. mexicana hybrid complex in South Africa. Natural enemies which feed on the hard tuberous roots of N. mexicana and its hybrids, as opposed to the soft bulbs of the native N. nouchali and N. lotus, should be prioritised.
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