Geotectonic controls on primary diamond deposits : a review of exploration criteria
- Authors: Hannon, Camille
- Date: 2013-05-23
- Subjects: Diamonds , Geology, Structural , Diamond deposits , Kimberlite
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5047 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1007810 , Diamonds , Geology, Structural , Diamond deposits , Kimberlite
- Description: The origin of diamonds, their preservation and transport to the surface have been important issues over the last decades after the acknowledgement that diamonds are xenocrysts in the host kimberlites and after the discovery of new transport media such as lamproites. Different types of diamonds -E-type diamonds, P-type diamonds- and different types of hosts - Eclogites, Peridotites- have been distinguished. Each type corresponds to particular formation criteria. Ecogitic Diamonds are mostly related to subduction processes, whereas more uncertainties remain regarding the formation of Peridotitic Diamonds. Komatiite extraction and subduction of graphite-bearing serpentinites have been proposed as the more likely processes involved in their formation. A typical mantle signature for diamonds implies a thick, cool, reduced lithosphere. The keel-shape model is the most popular. Archaean cratons are therefore the most promising exploration target and area selection will expect to follow the Clifford's Rule. However, the evidence of cratonic areas hidden under younger formations · through seismic profiles and the discovery of diamond structurally trapped outside their stability field, have increased the potential of diamondiferous areas. Preservation of diamonds inside the lithosphere requires that the mantleroot remains insulated against excessive reheating and tectonic reworking. Mantle-root friendly and mantle-root destructive structures are distinguished. Small-size cratons are usually the most promising exploration targets. Transport of diamonds to the surface is dependant on' the same criteria of preservation. Only kimberlites and lamproites have been recognized as efficient transport media. Their ascent to the surface is conditioned by a multitude of parameters, amongst them the nature of the magma, the speed of ascent, the presence of pre-existing structures in the crust and the availability of ground water in the near-surface environment. The origin of kimberlite magma probably lies near the transition zone. Mixtures of depleted asthenospheric · sources and metasomatically enriched and possibly subducted materials are likely to be at the origin of the different kimberlite magmas. Kimberlite magmatism correlates generally in time with global tectonic events, triggered by either plume activity or by subduction processes, depending of the tectonic school of thought. Kimberlite alignments have been interpreted as hotspot tracks, and kimberlite magmas as volatile-rich melts issued from the remaining plume tail. The plume head produces flood-basalts in an adjacent "thinspot" of the lithosphere, generally on the edges of the cratons. Kimberlite and lamproite ascent to the surface are unconditionally influenced by regional structures. Rift structures, ring structures, transform faults, suture zones and deep-seated faults have been mentioned as controlling or accompanying features of kimberlite magmatism. Nearsurface emplacement constraints are better understood and the ultimate shape of the intrusion(s) depends on the nature of the country rocks, the availability of ground water and the near-surface faulting pattern. The recent discovery of "fissure" kimberlites is one of the more important breakthroughs of the last decade. With a better understanding of the processes involved in diamond formation, preservation and of kimberlite emplacement, major diamond discoveries have recently increased on all the continents. Successful diamond exploration requires today an integration of all geophysical, petrologic, geochemical and structural information available. The particular study of the northwestern Australian lamproite and kimberlite fields, the Brazilian kimberlites, the easternNorth American kimberlite fields, the Lac de Gras kimberlite field, the South African rich kimberlite provinces, and the Yakutian kimberlite fields provide concrete examples of the geotectonic controls on primary diamond deposits. Area selection criteria based on the previous models and examples, are expected to yield to many more discoveries in the coming years. , KMBT_363 , Adobe Acrobat 9.54 Paper Capture Plug-in
- Full Text:
- Authors: Hannon, Camille
- Date: 2013-05-23
- Subjects: Diamonds , Geology, Structural , Diamond deposits , Kimberlite
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:5047 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1007810 , Diamonds , Geology, Structural , Diamond deposits , Kimberlite
- Description: The origin of diamonds, their preservation and transport to the surface have been important issues over the last decades after the acknowledgement that diamonds are xenocrysts in the host kimberlites and after the discovery of new transport media such as lamproites. Different types of diamonds -E-type diamonds, P-type diamonds- and different types of hosts - Eclogites, Peridotites- have been distinguished. Each type corresponds to particular formation criteria. Ecogitic Diamonds are mostly related to subduction processes, whereas more uncertainties remain regarding the formation of Peridotitic Diamonds. Komatiite extraction and subduction of graphite-bearing serpentinites have been proposed as the more likely processes involved in their formation. A typical mantle signature for diamonds implies a thick, cool, reduced lithosphere. The keel-shape model is the most popular. Archaean cratons are therefore the most promising exploration target and area selection will expect to follow the Clifford's Rule. However, the evidence of cratonic areas hidden under younger formations · through seismic profiles and the discovery of diamond structurally trapped outside their stability field, have increased the potential of diamondiferous areas. Preservation of diamonds inside the lithosphere requires that the mantleroot remains insulated against excessive reheating and tectonic reworking. Mantle-root friendly and mantle-root destructive structures are distinguished. Small-size cratons are usually the most promising exploration targets. Transport of diamonds to the surface is dependant on' the same criteria of preservation. Only kimberlites and lamproites have been recognized as efficient transport media. Their ascent to the surface is conditioned by a multitude of parameters, amongst them the nature of the magma, the speed of ascent, the presence of pre-existing structures in the crust and the availability of ground water in the near-surface environment. The origin of kimberlite magma probably lies near the transition zone. Mixtures of depleted asthenospheric · sources and metasomatically enriched and possibly subducted materials are likely to be at the origin of the different kimberlite magmas. Kimberlite magmatism correlates generally in time with global tectonic events, triggered by either plume activity or by subduction processes, depending of the tectonic school of thought. Kimberlite alignments have been interpreted as hotspot tracks, and kimberlite magmas as volatile-rich melts issued from the remaining plume tail. The plume head produces flood-basalts in an adjacent "thinspot" of the lithosphere, generally on the edges of the cratons. Kimberlite and lamproite ascent to the surface are unconditionally influenced by regional structures. Rift structures, ring structures, transform faults, suture zones and deep-seated faults have been mentioned as controlling or accompanying features of kimberlite magmatism. Nearsurface emplacement constraints are better understood and the ultimate shape of the intrusion(s) depends on the nature of the country rocks, the availability of ground water and the near-surface faulting pattern. The recent discovery of "fissure" kimberlites is one of the more important breakthroughs of the last decade. With a better understanding of the processes involved in diamond formation, preservation and of kimberlite emplacement, major diamond discoveries have recently increased on all the continents. Successful diamond exploration requires today an integration of all geophysical, petrologic, geochemical and structural information available. The particular study of the northwestern Australian lamproite and kimberlite fields, the Brazilian kimberlites, the easternNorth American kimberlite fields, the Lac de Gras kimberlite field, the South African rich kimberlite provinces, and the Yakutian kimberlite fields provide concrete examples of the geotectonic controls on primary diamond deposits. Area selection criteria based on the previous models and examples, are expected to yield to many more discoveries in the coming years. , KMBT_363 , Adobe Acrobat 9.54 Paper Capture Plug-in
- Full Text:
Mantle xenoliths from the Abrahamskraal kimberlite : a craton-margin geotherm
- Authors: Nowicki, Thomas Edward
- Date: 1991
- Subjects: Kimberlite , Kimberlite -- Inclusions
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4898 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001557
- Description: The Abrahamskraal kimberlite pipe (group I) occurs approximately 5 km to the south-west of the geophysically defined margin of the Kaapvaal craton in the central Cape Province, and contains a variety of crustal and mantle xenoliths. This study focusses on xenoliths of deep-seated origin (mantle and lower-crustal), and in particular on garnet-orthopyroxene bearing assemblages which are amenable to thermobarometric techniques. Four major types of deep-seated xenolith have been identified, i.e. peridotites, dunites , eclogites, and garnet pyroxenites. The petrographic features and mineral compositions of these xenoliths are described . Pressures and temperatures of equilibration have been calculated primarily using the garnet-orthopyroxene thermometer of Harley (1984), and the Al-in-enstatite barometer of Nickel and Green (1985). The peridotites are coarse-textured (Harte, 1977), magnesium -rich rocks, and are typical examples of the common type I peridotites which generally dominate mantle xenolith suites in kimberlites. Garnet peridotite xenoliths define a geotherm which lies along a typical theoretical conductive geothermal gradient for shield areas (Pollack and Chapman, 1977), and which extends to a maximum pressure of 41 kb (~130 km). Comparison of the Abrahamskraal geotherm with that constructed for the northern Lesotho xenolith suite (calculated using the same thermobarometer couple), suggests that the lithosphere at the Namaqua /Kaapvaal boundary is not significantly thinner or hotter than that underlying the craton. Modelling of the craton boundary under the constraints provided by the Abrahamskraal geotherm, and by the distribution of diamond-bearing kimberlites in southern Africa, indicates that the Abrahamskraal kimberlite has sampled relatively thick, cool , Namaqua lithosphere. It is suggested that, in terms of diamond distribution, the age and magmatic history of the Namaqua lithosphere is of greater significance than its thickness. Two varieties of dunite occur at Abrahamskraal. Coarse-textured dunites with Mg-rich olivine compositions similar to those of the peridotitic olivines, probably originated by similar (but perhaps more extreme) processes to those which formed the peridotites. A finer-grained and relatively Fe-rich variety of dunite may represent ultramafic cumulates formed by fractionation of basic or ultrabasic magmas within the mantle. Two varieties of eclogite have been distinguished. Coarse-grained eclogites which yield relatively high temperature estimates, are believed to have originated from depths similar to those determined for the garnet peridotites, i.e. from the lower lithosphere. A distinctly finer grained variety of eclogite, yields significantly lower temperatures which may be based on frozen-in equilibria. A maximum depth of approximately 87 km (~ 27 kb) has been estimated for these xenoliths, but they may have originated from significantly shallower (possibly lower-crustal) levels. The garnet pyroxenite xenoliths are generally orthopyroxene-rich rocks which contain varying amounts of garnet (8 to 33 %) and clinopyroxene (0 to 64 %). Textural features indicate that the garnet and possibly some of the clinopyroxene has exsolved from an originally A l -rich orthopyroxene. The rocks are significantly more Fe-rich than the peridotite xenoliths, and their constituent minerals show a wide range of Mg/Mg+Fe ratios. The pressure-temperature array defined by the garnet pyroxenites is approximately isothermal, and spans a depth range from approximately 30 to 95 km. It deviates strongly (to higher temperatures) from the ambient geothermal gradient at the time of kimberlite emplacement, as inferred from the garnet peridotite xenoliths. The pressures and temperatures calculated for the garnet pyroxenites are based on mineral equilibria which are believed to have been frozen-in during cooling from an intial hightemperature (probably molten) state. Qualitative modelling of possible cooling paths in pressure-temperature-composition space, indicates that the apparent depth range displayed by the garnet pyroxenites, approximates the true depth range over which these rocks were emplaced. However, the apparent pressures calculated from core compositions are significantly lower than the true pressures at which the original rocks formed . The garnet pyroxenite xenoliths appear to represent a major, possibly Namaqua age (~1000-1400 Ma), magmatic event involving the emplacement of large amounts of mafic magma over a significant depth range in the shallow upper mantle
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1991
- Authors: Nowicki, Thomas Edward
- Date: 1991
- Subjects: Kimberlite , Kimberlite -- Inclusions
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: vital:4898 , http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1001557
- Description: The Abrahamskraal kimberlite pipe (group I) occurs approximately 5 km to the south-west of the geophysically defined margin of the Kaapvaal craton in the central Cape Province, and contains a variety of crustal and mantle xenoliths. This study focusses on xenoliths of deep-seated origin (mantle and lower-crustal), and in particular on garnet-orthopyroxene bearing assemblages which are amenable to thermobarometric techniques. Four major types of deep-seated xenolith have been identified, i.e. peridotites, dunites , eclogites, and garnet pyroxenites. The petrographic features and mineral compositions of these xenoliths are described . Pressures and temperatures of equilibration have been calculated primarily using the garnet-orthopyroxene thermometer of Harley (1984), and the Al-in-enstatite barometer of Nickel and Green (1985). The peridotites are coarse-textured (Harte, 1977), magnesium -rich rocks, and are typical examples of the common type I peridotites which generally dominate mantle xenolith suites in kimberlites. Garnet peridotite xenoliths define a geotherm which lies along a typical theoretical conductive geothermal gradient for shield areas (Pollack and Chapman, 1977), and which extends to a maximum pressure of 41 kb (~130 km). Comparison of the Abrahamskraal geotherm with that constructed for the northern Lesotho xenolith suite (calculated using the same thermobarometer couple), suggests that the lithosphere at the Namaqua /Kaapvaal boundary is not significantly thinner or hotter than that underlying the craton. Modelling of the craton boundary under the constraints provided by the Abrahamskraal geotherm, and by the distribution of diamond-bearing kimberlites in southern Africa, indicates that the Abrahamskraal kimberlite has sampled relatively thick, cool , Namaqua lithosphere. It is suggested that, in terms of diamond distribution, the age and magmatic history of the Namaqua lithosphere is of greater significance than its thickness. Two varieties of dunite occur at Abrahamskraal. Coarse-textured dunites with Mg-rich olivine compositions similar to those of the peridotitic olivines, probably originated by similar (but perhaps more extreme) processes to those which formed the peridotites. A finer-grained and relatively Fe-rich variety of dunite may represent ultramafic cumulates formed by fractionation of basic or ultrabasic magmas within the mantle. Two varieties of eclogite have been distinguished. Coarse-grained eclogites which yield relatively high temperature estimates, are believed to have originated from depths similar to those determined for the garnet peridotites, i.e. from the lower lithosphere. A distinctly finer grained variety of eclogite, yields significantly lower temperatures which may be based on frozen-in equilibria. A maximum depth of approximately 87 km (~ 27 kb) has been estimated for these xenoliths, but they may have originated from significantly shallower (possibly lower-crustal) levels. The garnet pyroxenite xenoliths are generally orthopyroxene-rich rocks which contain varying amounts of garnet (8 to 33 %) and clinopyroxene (0 to 64 %). Textural features indicate that the garnet and possibly some of the clinopyroxene has exsolved from an originally A l -rich orthopyroxene. The rocks are significantly more Fe-rich than the peridotite xenoliths, and their constituent minerals show a wide range of Mg/Mg+Fe ratios. The pressure-temperature array defined by the garnet pyroxenites is approximately isothermal, and spans a depth range from approximately 30 to 95 km. It deviates strongly (to higher temperatures) from the ambient geothermal gradient at the time of kimberlite emplacement, as inferred from the garnet peridotite xenoliths. The pressures and temperatures calculated for the garnet pyroxenites are based on mineral equilibria which are believed to have been frozen-in during cooling from an intial hightemperature (probably molten) state. Qualitative modelling of possible cooling paths in pressure-temperature-composition space, indicates that the apparent depth range displayed by the garnet pyroxenites, approximates the true depth range over which these rocks were emplaced. However, the apparent pressures calculated from core compositions are significantly lower than the true pressures at which the original rocks formed . The garnet pyroxenite xenoliths appear to represent a major, possibly Namaqua age (~1000-1400 Ma), magmatic event involving the emplacement of large amounts of mafic magma over a significant depth range in the shallow upper mantle
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 1991
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